打字猴:1.700230587e+09
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1700230588 7.S. M. Purcell, N. R. Wray, J. L. Stone, P. M. Visscher, M. C. O’Donovan,P. F. Sullivan, P. Sklar, et al., “Common polygenic variation contributes to risk of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder,” Nature 460, No. 7256 (2009): 748–752.
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1700230590 8.Q. Ashraf and O. Galor, “The ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis, human genetic diversity, and comparative economic development,” American Economic Review 103, No. 1 (2013): 1–46.
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1700230592 9.C. J. Cook, “The role of lactase persistence in precolonial development,” Journal of Economic Growth 19, No. 4 (2014): 369–406.
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1700230594 10.L. M. Silver, “Reprogenetics: Third millennium speculation,” EMBO Reports 1, No. 5 (2000):375–378.
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1700230596 第二章 遗传力的稳定性:基因与不平等
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1700230598 1.M. Diamond, “Sex, gender, and identity over the years: A changing perspective”,Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America13(2004): 591–607.
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1700230600 2.A. R. Jensen, “Heritability of IQ,” Science 194, No. 4260 (1976): 6。
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1700230602 3.P. Taubman, “The determinants of earnings: Genetics, family, and other environments:A study of white male twins,”American Economic Review66,No. 5 (1976): 858–870.
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1700230604 4.A. S. Goldberger, “Heritability,”Economica46, No. 184 (1979):327–347.
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1700230606 5.A. S. Goldberger, “Heritability,”Economica46, No. 184 (1979):327–347.
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1700230608 6.《广告狂人》里的唐·德雷柏与梅根虽然膝下无子,但依然选择跟她结婚,而非法耶·米勒博士。剧中的罗杰与简也是如此。
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1700230610 7.我们可以说,今天这种监狱人满为患的状况完美地体现了这种政策冲动——不管这一状况是否正在发生改变。
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1700230612 8.自从《金钱买不到的东西——论家庭收入与子女的人生机遇》出版之后,许多采用比观测数据更适当方法的研究表明,收入很重要,但是与我们平常认为的方式可能并不一样。一些研究采用了自然实验,如暴利。某些部落通过博彩或政策变化导致的收入“等级”牟取暴利。另外,一些进行中的研究正努力达到证据的黄金标准:随机对照试验。由格雷戈里·邓肯(Greg Duncan)负责的一组学者争取到了一笔资金,并确实地给予某些贫困家庭一笔数目可观的月津贴,并使用最新的大脑扫描和其他技术追踪家庭子女的生活。然而,结果还要很长时间才会出来。
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1700230614 9.值得强调的是,社会科学证据显示,谈吐方式与收入息息相关。利用几十年前电话录音调查得到的声音样本,杰夫·格罗格(Jeff Grogger)表示,说话不像黑人的黑人男性的收入与白人男性几乎相同[“Speechpatterns and racial wage inequality,”Journal of Human Resources46, No. 1(2011): 1-25]。
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1700230616 10.https://www.arts.gov/news/2016/arts-and-cultural-productioncontributed-7042-billion-us-economy-2013.
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1700230618 11.“差异倍增”这条捷径的基础是模型假设和异卵双生子基因相似率为50%。模型首先假设,性状差异可以分成三种可加的元素A、C和E。接着,我们发现同卵双生子(mz)的相似程度(r)与A和C相关(即rmz=A+C),异卵双生子(dz)的相似程度(r)与½A和C相关(½是由于他们拥有50%的相似基因型),即rdz=½A+C。从这两个等式可得A=2(rmz-rdz)。这就是“差异倍增”规则。通过调查数据,我们可以估算rmz和rdz,这样计算A就更便捷了。
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1700230620 12.在注释11中,我们已经计算出A和rmz。已知rmz=A+C,则C=rmz-A。因此,C也很容易计算得到。
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1700230622 13.对不熟悉ACE模型的人来说,共有和非共有环境可能难以分清。尽管双生子居住的房子看似是共有的(事实的确如此),但在某种程度上,住所的大小对双生子的影响是不同的。这种房子的不同影响就是非共有环境的一部分。在性状测量中的错误程度(如双生子对教育水平撒了谎)也被算入非共有环境中。除非双生子在某些家庭更有可能谎报教育水平,否则这种情况也可称为“共有环境”。
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1700230624 14.R. Acuna-Hidalgo,T. Bo, M. P. Kwint, M. van de Vorst, M. Pinelli, J.A. Veltman, A.Hoischen, L.E.L.M. Vissers, and C. Gilissen, “Post-zygoticpoint mutations are an underrecognizedsource of de novo genomic variation,”American Journal of Human Genetics97, No. 1 (2015): 67–74.
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1700230626 15.需要说明的是,在所含基因数量等方面,X染色体比Y染色体大,而且线粒体DNA一般总是来自母方。另外,一些研究表明,线粒体实际上来自父方,父方的精子尾部(包含线粒体)会断裂并留在受精卵里[F. Ankel- Simons and J. M. Cummins, “Misconceptions about mitochondria and mammalian fertilization: Implications for theories on human evolution,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences93, No. 24(1996): 1385913863]。但是,近期的进一步研究表明,全基因组测序意味着将把细胞的所有线粒体DNA也纳入测定范围[A. Pyle, G. Hudson, I. J. Wilson, J.Coxhead, T. Smertenko, M. Herbert, M. Santibanez- Koref, and P. F. Chinnery,“Extreme-depth re-sequencing of mitochondrial DNA finds no evidence of paternal transmission in humans,”PLoS Genetics11, No. 5(2015):e1005040]。For a review and discussion, see V. Carelli, “Keeping in shape the dogma of mitochondrial DNA maternal inheritance”,PLoS Genetics11, No. 5(2015): e1005179.
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1700230628 16.如果近亲繁殖(乱伦)很普遍的话,那么遗传相关度可能呈平滑分布。尽管在巴基斯坦和阿拉伯联合酋长国等国家,堂/表亲联姻很普遍(超过一半),但亲兄弟姐妹婚配在大部分地方仍然是禁忌。
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1700230630 17.证明缺乏外部有效性的方法之一,就是诉诸非线性遗传效应的可能性。
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1700230632 18.I. Simonson and A. Sela, “On the heritability of consumer decision making: An exploratoryapproach for studying genetic effects on judgment and choice,”Journal of Consumer Research37, No. 6 (2011): 951–966.
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1700230634 19.I. Simonson and A. Sela, “On the heritability of consumer decision making: An exploratoryapproach for studying genetic effects on judgment and choice,”Journal of Consumer Research37, No. 6 (2011): 951–966.
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1700230636 20.A. R. Branigan, K. J. McCallum, and J. Freese, “Variation in the heritability of educationalattainment: An international meta-analysis,”SocialForces92, No. 1 (2013): 109–140.
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