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8.Q. Ashraf and O. Galor, “The ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis, human genetic diversity, and comparative economic development,” American Economic Review 103, No. 1 (2013): 1–46.
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9.C. J. Cook, “The role of lactase persistence in precolonial development,” Journal of Economic Growth 19, No. 4 (2014): 369–406.
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10.L. M. Silver, “Reprogenetics: Third millennium speculation,” EMBO Reports 1, No. 5 (2000)
:375–378.
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第二章 遗传力的稳定性:基因与不平等
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1.M. Diamond, “Sex, gender, and identity over the years: A changing perspective”,Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America13(2004): 591–607.
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2.A. R. Jensen, “Heritability of IQ,” Science 194, No. 4260 (1976): 6。
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3.P. Taubman, “The determinants of earnings: Genetics, family, and other environments:A study of white male twins,”American Economic Review66,No. 5 (1976): 858–870.
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4.A. S. Goldberger, “Heritability,”Economica46, No. 184 (1979)
:327–347.
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5.A. S. Goldberger, “Heritability,”Economica46, No. 184 (1979)
:327–347.
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6.《广告狂人》里的唐·德雷柏与梅根虽然膝下无子,但依然选择跟她结婚,而非法耶·米勒博士。剧中的罗杰与简也是如此。
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7.我们可以说,今天这种监狱人满为患的状况完美地体现了这种政策冲动——不管这一状况是否正在发生改变。
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8.自从《金钱买不到的东西——论家庭收入与子女的人生机遇》出版之后,许多采用比观测数据更适当方法的研究表明,收入很重要,但是与我们平常认为的方式可能并不一样。一些研究采用了自然实验,如暴利。某些部落通过博彩或政策变化导致的收入“等级”牟取暴利。另外,一些进行中的研究正努力达到证据的黄金标准:随机对照试验。由格雷戈里·邓肯(Greg Duncan)负责的一组学者争取到了一笔资金,并确实地给予某些贫困家庭一笔数目可观的月津贴,并使用最新的大脑扫描和其他技术追踪家庭子女的生活。然而,结果还要很长时间才会出来。
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9.值得强调的是,社会科学证据显示,谈吐方式与收入息息相关。利用几十年前电话录音调查得到的声音样本,杰夫·格罗格(Jeff Grogger)表示,说话不像黑人的黑人男性的收入与白人男性几乎相同[“Speechpatterns and racial wage inequality,”Journal of Human Resources46, No. 1(2011): 1-25]。
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10.https://www.arts.gov/news/2016/arts-and-cultural-productioncontributed-7042-billion-us-economy-2013.
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11.“差异倍增”这条捷径的基础是模型假设和异卵双生子基因相似率为50%。模型首先假设,性状差异可以分成三种可加的元素A、C和E。接着,我们发现同卵双生子(mz)的相似程度(r)与A和C相关(即rmz=A+C),异卵双生子(dz)的相似程度(r)与½A和C相关(½是由于他们拥有50%的相似基因型),即rdz=½A+C。从这两个等式可得A=2(rmz-rdz)。这就是“差异倍增”规则。通过调查数据,我们可以估算rmz和rdz,这样计算A就更便捷了。
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12.在注释11中,我们已经计算出A和rmz。已知rmz=A+C,则C=rmz-A。因此,C也很容易计算得到。
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13.对不熟悉ACE模型的人来说,共有和非共有环境可能难以分清。尽管双生子居住的房子看似是共有的(事实的确如此),但在某种程度上,住所的大小对双生子的影响是不同的。这种房子的不同影响就是非共有环境的一部分。在性状测量中的错误程度(如双生子对教育水平撒了谎)也被算入非共有环境中。除非双生子在某些家庭更有可能谎报教育水平,否则这种情况也可称为“共有环境”。
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14.R. Acuna-Hidalgo,T. Bo, M. P. Kwint, M. van de Vorst, M. Pinelli, J.A. Veltman, A.Hoischen, L.E.L.M. Vissers, and C. Gilissen, “Post-zygoticpoint mutations are an underrecognizedsource of de novo genomic variation,”American Journal of Human Genetics97, No. 1 (2015): 67–74.
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15.需要说明的是,在所含基因数量等方面,X染色体比Y染色体大,而且线粒体DNA一般总是来自母方。另外,一些研究表明,线粒体实际上来自父方,父方的精子尾部(包含线粒体)会断裂并留在受精卵里[F. Ankel- Simons and J. M. Cummins, “Misconceptions about mitochondria and mammalian fertilization: Implications for theories on human evolution,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences93, No. 24(1996): 1385913863]。但是,近期的进一步研究表明,全基因组测序意味着将把细胞的所有线粒体DNA也纳入测定范围[A. Pyle, G. Hudson, I. J. Wilson, J.Coxhead, T. Smertenko, M. Herbert, M. Santibanez- Koref, and P. F. Chinnery,“Extreme-depth re-sequencing of mitochondrial DNA finds no evidence of paternal transmission in humans,”PLoS Genetics11, No. 5(2015)
:e1005040]。For a review and discussion, see V. Carelli, “Keeping in shape the dogma of mitochondrial DNA maternal inheritance”,PLoS Genetics11, No. 5(2015): e1005179.
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16.如果近亲繁殖(乱伦)很普遍的话,那么遗传相关度可能呈平滑分布。尽管在巴基斯坦和阿拉伯联合酋长国等国家,堂/表亲联姻很普遍(超过一半),但亲兄弟姐妹婚配在大部分地方仍然是禁忌。
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17.证明缺乏外部有效性的方法之一,就是诉诸非线性遗传效应的可能性。
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18.I. Simonson and A. Sela, “On the heritability of consumer decision making: An exploratoryapproach for studying genetic effects on judgment and choice,”Journal of Consumer Research37, No. 6 (2011): 951–966.
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19.I. Simonson and A. Sela, “On the heritability of consumer decision making: An exploratoryapproach for studying genetic effects on judgment and choice,”Journal of Consumer Research37, No. 6 (2011): 951–966.
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20.A. R. Branigan, K. J. McCallum, and J. Freese, “Variation in the heritability of educationalattainment: An international meta-analysis,”SocialForces92, No. 1 (2013): 109–140.
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21.J. M. Vink, G. Willemsen, and D. I. Boomsma, “Heritability of smoking initiation andnicotine dependence,”Behavior Genetics35, No. 4(2005): 397–406.
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