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50.J. M. Fletcher, “Why have tobacco control policies stalled? Using genetic moderation to examine policy impacts,”PloS One7, No. 12 (2012)
:e50576.
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51.S. E. Black, P. J. Devereux, and K. Salvanes, “From the cradle to the labor market? The effect of birth weight on adult outcomes” (working paper w11796, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, 2005).
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52.See D. Conley and N. G. Bennett, “Is biology destiny? Birth weight and life chances,”American Sociological Review65, No. 3 (2000): 458–467.
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53.A. Iliadou, S. Cnattingius, and P. Lichtenstein, “Low birthweight and Type 2 diabetes: A study on 11 162 Swedish twins,”International Journalof Epidemiology33, No.5(2004): 948–953, http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/5/948.short; J. Strohmaier, J. van Dongen, G. Willemsen, D. R. Nyholt,G. Zhu, V. Codd, B. Novakovic, et al., “Low birth weight in MZ twins discordant for birth weight is associated with shorter telomere length and lower IQ, but not anxiety/depression in later life,”Twin Research and Human Genetics18, No. 02(2015): 198– 209, http://journals. cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9657965&fileId=S1832427415000031。
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54.C. J. Cook and J. M. Fletcher, “Understanding heterogeneity in the effects of birth weight on adult cognition and wages,”Journal of HealthEconomics41 (2015): 107– 116.
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55.虽然很难去整体评估一系列的干预措施，因为它们并不是随机对婴儿实施的，但是经济学家已经采用了一种称作回归间断点设计的技术去尝试得到一个评估。他们在普通医院进行了实测，将出生体重5.4磅记为低出生体重，5.6磅记为正常体重。因此，在出生体重差异很小的情况下，婴儿所接受的干预措施可能会有巨大差异，并且我们可以询问这些措施是否有利。有几位经济学家使用5.5磅作为低出生体重的临界值，他们发现，这些措施相对来说并不合理，因为受干预婴儿的结果与出生体重略高于5.5磅，因而不太可能获得额外服务和干预的婴儿并没有大的区别。D. Almond, J. J. Doyle Jr., A. E. Kowalski, and H. Williams, “Estimating marginal returns to medical care: Evidence from at- risk newborns” (working paper w14522, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA,2008). For follow- up discussion, see A. I. Barreca, M. Guldi, J. M. Lindo, and G. R. Waddell, “Saving babies? Revisiting the effect of very low birth weight classification,”Quarterly Journal of Economics126, No. 4 (2011): 2117– 2123.
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56.O. Thompson, “Economic background and educational attainment: The role of gene- environment interactions,”Journal of Human Resources49, No. 2(2014): 263– 294.
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57.R. Haveman and B. Wolfe, “The determinants of children’s attainments:A review of methods and findings,”Journal of Economic Literature33, no. 4(1995): 1829– 1878.
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58.D. Lee, J. Brooks- Gunn, S. S. McLanahan, D. Notterman, and I.Garfinkel, “The Great Recession, genetic sensitivity, and maternal harsh parenting,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences110, No. 34(2013): 13780– 13784, http://www. pnas.org/content/110/34 /13780.short.
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59.《经济适用法案》（ACA，即奥巴马医改）明确禁止利用成本效益分析来推动有关程序和治疗方法的决定，但是很多经济学家认为，这一禁止令等同于向制药和医疗器械公司开了空头支票，即使效益低下，他们仍然会继续开发昂贵的新疗法。ACA的未来修订可能会转向NICE风格，以便控制成本。
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结论 走向“基因统治”?
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1.或者“你很可能不喜欢吃芦笋”。
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2.此外，他们犯了一个常见的统计学错误：没有同时报告可能概率（而非发生概率）。比如，你得中风的概率是（100%之中的）1.2%，而不是1%——那么发生概率上升了20%，但这看起来就没那么疯狂。N.Eriksson, J. M. Macpherson, J. Y. Tung, L. S. Hon, B. Naughton, S. Saxonov, L.Avey, et al.,“Web-based, participant-driven studies yield novel genetic associations for common traits,”PLoS Genetics6, no. 6 (2010): e1000993.
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3.2013年11月22日，FDA发表了这项针对23andme个人基因组服务“23andme, Inc.,”的裁决，Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring,MD, http://www.fda.gov/iceci/enforcementactions/warningletters/2013/ucm376296.htm。
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4.“FDA permits marketing of first direct-to-consumer genetic carrier test for Bloom syndrome,” FDA News Release, U.S. Food and Drug Administration,Silver Spring, MD, February 23, 2015, http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm 435003.htm.
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5.候选基因评估包括APOE或BRCA1/2状态，它们可能有用，部分原因是遗传学家已经对这些基因大大增加痴呆或阿尔茨海默病和乳腺癌风险的原因有一些理解。
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6.比如，美国国家青少年健康纵向研究（Add Health）数据显示， 6月出生的被调查者到30岁时接受的教育比1月出生的人少2个月。
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7.http://www.babycenter.com.au/a1487/screening-for-down-syndrome.
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8.《千钧一发》（Gattaca）是1997年伊森·霍克(Ethan Hawke)和乌玛·瑟曼(Uma Thurman)主演的一部科幻电影，讲述遗传学引发了社会工程学和“唯基因主义”的反乌托邦故事。
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9.也许随着时间推移我们会发现，这种胚胎选择不会有太多影响，因为社会会整合信息，而父母和机构也会做出补偿性的调整。如果情况如此，这种对时间与金钱的潜在浪费的一个有趣结果是，它可能反而会降低不平等水平，因为富人会一直浪费时间和金钱，而穷人则不会（但许多穷人也许会因落后而觉得压力很大）。
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10.该理论认为，至少对于男同性恋来说，其基因型之所以能在人群中保留，是因为男同性恋者的姐妹生育力高于平均水平，说明其在性方面的拮抗多效性。R. C. Pillard and J. Michael Bailey,“Human sexual orientation has a heritable component,”Human Biology(1998): 347–365.
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11.E. Telles,Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in
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Brazil(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006)。关于白人，见A. R.BraniganJ. Freese, A. Patir, T. W. McDade, K. Liu, and C. I. Kiefe, “Skin color,sex, and educational attainment in the post-civil rights era,” Social ScienceResearch42, no. 6 (2013): 1659–1674。
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12.E. Oster, I. Shoulson, and E. Dorsey, “Limited life expectancy, human capital and health investments: Evidence from Huntington disease” (working paper w17931, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, 2012),http://www.nber.org/papers/w17931.
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13.“Scientists to sequence genomes of hundreds of newborns,”Naturenewsblog, November23, 2015, http://blogs.nature.com/news/2013/09/scientiststo-sequence-hundreds-of-new borns-genomes.html.
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