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5.M. S. Granovetter, “The strength of weak ties,”American Journal ofSociology78, No. 6(1973): 1360¨C1380.
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6.M. Bertrand and S. Mullainathan, “Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination,”American Economic Review94, No. 4 (2004): 991–1013.
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7.虽然一直被认为是黄金标准，但是对审计研究的批评也不是没有。例如，詹姆斯·赫克曼（James Heckman）指出，第一，如果没有正确配对测试者，审计研究或许无法消除预期信号之外的信号［J.Heckman,“Detecting discrimination,”Journal of Economic Perspectives12,No. 2（1998）: 101– 116］。第二，即便是在非面对面的通信性实验（发邮件或者写信）中，受试者也可能对不同的变量做出了相应的对策。最近的研究表明房产市场是歧视最明显的。D. Neumark and J. Rich, “Dofield experiments on labor and housing markets overstate discrimination? Reexamination of the evidence”(working paper w22278, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, 2016)。
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8.D. N. Figlio, “Names, expectations and the black-white test score gap”(working paper 11195, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge,MA, 2005).
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9.A. R. McConnell and J. M. Leibold, “Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes,”Journal of Experimental Social Psychology37, No. 5 (2001): 435–442.
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10.R. Rosenthal and L. Jacobson, “Pygmalion in the classroom,”UrbanReview3, No. 1 (1968)
:16–20.
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11.C. M. Steele and J. Aronson, “Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans,”Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology69, No. 5 (1995): 797¨C811.
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12.H. Schuman,Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
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13.J. Citrin, D. P. Green, and D. O. Sears, “White reactions to black candidates: When does race matter?”Public Opinion Quarterly54, No. 1 (1990)
:74–96.
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14.J. Hopkins,“ No more wilder effect, never a Whitman effect: When and why polls mislead about black and female candidates,” Journal of Politics 71, No. 3 (2009): 769–781.
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15.J. G. Altonji and C. R. Pierret, “Employer learning and statistical discrimination” (working paper w6279, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, 1997).
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16.在这种自我循环的体系中排除因果关系是很难的。让我们进行一个异端的思想实验，认为理查德·赫恩斯坦和查尔斯·默里在20年前写《钟形曲线：美国社会中的智力与阶层结构》时其实是正确的。某些种族——也就是黑人——在经济成就上落后于白人是由于他们在认知能力上有遗传性的劣势。在这种情况下，两位作者预测的就是真实的世界，白人（或黑人）的种族主义态度和行为是有经济依据的（某些顽固的市场效率的信仰者会认为，如果像黑人这样的低收入、高失业群体的生产力和其他人没有区别的话，那么精明的公司就会从他们身上获利，从而黑人和白人之间的收入差距会缩小）。让我们暂且忽略前文提到的，胎儿、幼年和成年后的环境不对等可能造成很大的影响，而且这种影响是与遗传无关的。赫恩斯坦和默里用智商来作为遗传上能力的表征。但是正如我们知道的，他们并不对等。智商只是基因组的外在表现。
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附录6 基因型填补
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1.“23andme Research Portal Platform,” https://23andme.https.internapcdn.net/res/perma link/pdf/ashg/10292014_23andMeResearchPortal.pdf.
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2.B. W. Domingue, D. W. Belsky, D. Conley, K. M. Harris, and J. D. Boardman, “Polygenic influence on educational attainment,” AERA Open 1, No. 3 (2015): 2332858415599972.
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基因：不平等的遗传 索引
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ACE model, 20–29; additive heritability in,241n24; policy implications of, 29–34;variables in, 235n13.See alsogene-environment interaction
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Acemoğlu, Daron, 116–17, 127–28, 256n10,256n15
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Add Health.SeeNational Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health
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addiction, 39, 63, 161–62, 267n47
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adoption studies, 14, 35, 72, 181, 218,237n30
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Affymetrix Corporation, 225, 23
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African Americans, 14–15, 32–33, 62, 110–11,219–24; civil rights movement and, 15,274n2; ethnicity among, 89–90, 94; fer-tility rate of, 273n2; haplotypes among,228; incarceration of, 182, 234n7, 274n2;Kwanzaa and, 251n9; principal compo-nent analysis of, 104–8; speech patterns of, 235n9.See also race
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