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29. M. Rosenbaum et al., “Leptin Reverses Weight Loss- Induced Changes in Regional Neural Activity Responses to Visual Food Stimuli,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 118 (2008): 2583–2591. The analysis of the data from this fMRI study was a bit complicated in that there were scans done before and after weight loss and comparing subjects who had received leptin after weight loss with those who had received a placebo. For both the before and after conditions, multiple brain areas are activated upon viewing the food items, refl ecting the fact that food can be a complex stimulus simultaneously activating several cognitive networks.
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30. Ibid., 2587.
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31. A. J. Ho et al., “Obesity Is Linked with Lower Brain Volume in 700 AD and MCI Patients,” Neurobiology of Aging 31 (2010): 1326–1339.
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32. J. S. Allen, J. Bruss, and H. Damasio, “Normal Neuroanatomical Variation Due to Age: The Major Lobes and a Parcellation of the Temporal Region,” Neurobiology of Aging 26 (2005): 1245–1260.
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33. J. S. Allen, J. Bruss, and H. Damasio, “The Aging Brain: The Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis and Hominid Evolution,” American Journal of Human Biology 17 (2005): 673–689.
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34. S. Debette et al., “Visceral Fat Is Associated with Lower Brain Volume in Healthy Middle- Aged Adults,” Annals of Neurology 68 (2010): 136–144; S. Gazdinski et al., “Body Mass Index and Magnetic Resonance Markers of Brain Integrity in Adults,” Annals of Neurology 63 (2008): 652–657.
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35. D. Gustafson et al., “A 24- Year Follow- Up of Body Mass Index and Cerebral Atrophy,” Neurology 63 (2004): 1876–1881.
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36. Y. Taki et al., “Relationship between Body Mass Index and Gray Matter Volume in 1,428 Healthy Individuals,” Obesity 16 (2008): 119–124.
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37. N. Pannacciulli et al., “Brain Abnormalities in Human Obesity: A Voxel- Based Morphometric Study,” NeuroImage 31 (2006): 1419–1425.
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38. C. A. Raji et al., “Brain Structure and Obesity,” Human Brain Mapping 31 (2010): 353–364.
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39. A. J. Ho, “A Commonly Carried Allele of the Obesity- Related FTO Gene Is Associated with Reduced Brain Volume in the Healthy El der ly,“Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): 8404–8409.
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40. A. J. Ho et al., “Obesity Is Linked with Lower Brain Volume.”
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41. Ibid.
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42. R. D. Terry and R. Katzman, “Life Span and the Synapses: Will There Be a Primary Senile Dementia?” Neurobiology of Aging 22 (2001): 347–348.
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43. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
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44. G. - J. Wang et al., “Evidence of Gender Differences in the Ability to Inhibit Brain Activation Elicited by Food Stimulation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (2009): 1249–1254.
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45. P. K. Keel et al., “A 20- Year Longitudinal Study of Body Weight, Dieting, and Eating Disorder Symptoms,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116 (2007): 422–432.
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46. L. Passamonti et al., “Personality Predicts the Brain’s Response to Viewing Appetizing Foods: The Neural Basis of a Risk Factor for Overeating,” Journal of Neuroscience 29 (2009): 43–51.
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47. J. M. McCaffrey et al., “Differential Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Response to Food Pictures in Successful Weight- Loss Maintainers Relative to Normal- Weight and Obese Controls,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90 (2009): 928–934.
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48. E. Abrahams and M. Silver, “The Case for Personalized Medicine,” Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology 3 (2009): 680–684.
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49. T. B. Gustafson and D. B. Sarwer, “Childhood Sexual Abuse and Obesity,” Obesity Reviews 5 (2004): 129–135.
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50. Kessler, The End of Overeating.
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51. M. J. Morris, E. S. Na, and A. K. Johnson, “Salt Craving: The Psychobiology of Pathogenic Sodium Intake,” Physiology and Behavior 94(2008): 709–721.
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52. M. Lutter and E. J. Nestler, “Homeostatic and Hedonic Signals Interact in the Regulation of Food Intake,” Journal of Nutrition 139 (2009): 629–632, quote from 629. See also J. A. Corsica and M. L. Pelchat, “Food Addiction: True or False?” Current Opinion in Gastroenterology 26 (2010): 165–169; M. L. Pelchat, “Food Addiction in Humans,” Journal of Nutrition 139 (2009): 620–622.
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53. P. Rozin, “Psychobiological Perspectives on Food Preferences and Avoidances,” in Food and Evolution: Toward a Theory of Human Food Habits, ed. M. Harris and E. B. Ross, 181–205 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); M. Lafourcade et al., “Nutritional Omega- 3 Defi ciency Abolishes Endocannabinoid- Mediated Neuronal Functions,” Nature Neuroscience 14 (2011): 345–350.
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