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12 有时,结论很大程度上依赖于统计解释,这些解释并非不言自明,需要大量的努力和培训来复制。例如,李恩哲(UnCheol Lee)及其团队报告,氯胺酮确实对异丙酚和七氟醚产生的脑电图产生不同的影响。为了得出这个结论,他们不得不使用复杂的数学和统计算法,但与此同时,他们也承认,其他使用同样复杂数据分析的研究基本都产生了相反的结果。Barrett, A.B.et al.‘Granger causality analysis of steady-state electro-enceph-alographic signals during propofol-induced anaesthesia’.PLoS One ,7(2012).Cruse, D.et al.‘Detecting awareness in the vegetative state:electroencephalo-graphic evidence for attempted movements to command’.PLoS One ,7,e49933(2012).Goldfine, A.M.et al.‘Reanalysis of“Bedside detection of awareness in the vegetative state:a cohort study”’.Lancet ,381,289-91(2013).Lee, U.et al.‘Disruption of frontal-parietal communication by ketamine, propofol and sevoflurane’.Anesthesiology ,118,1264-75(2013).Mashour, G.A.&Avidan, M.S.‘Capturing covert consciousness’.Lancet ,381,271-2(2013).Menon, R.&Kim, S.‘Spatial and temporal limits in cognitive neuroimaging with fMRI’.Trends in Cognitive Science ,3,207-16(1999).Nicolaou, N.,Hourris, S.,Alexan-drou, P.&Georgiou, J.‘EEG-based automatic classification of“awake”versus“anesthetized”state in general anesthesia using Granger causality’.PLoS One ,7,e33869(2012).最近新的尝试是一个研究团队使用复杂的脑电图分析认为,处于持续性植物状态的病人很可能是有意识的,但其他团队对同一数据重新分析的结果否认了这一提议。事实上,另一个医疗结构甚至声称:“意识状态的解释完全是基于神经生理学的数据,这在很大程度上依赖于统计模型。”与此同时,另一种脑成像方法远非理想。功能磁共振成像和其他扫描技术能读出大脑内部的血液流动,而不是神经元活动的直接信息。正如我们在上一章中看到的,测量大脑事件的时间窗与实时效果并不相称。因此,运用这些方法难以评估不同麻醉剂的差异,也因此更难解释一个单一、共同及最终的大脑过程。
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对主要的假定备选受体/通道的麻醉作用的概述
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图例:
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GABA-A,γ-氨基丁酸A型;nACh,烟碱乙酰胆碱;5HT3,5-羟色胺(血清素)3型;AMPA,α-氨基-3-羟基-5-甲基-4-异恶唑丙酸;NMDA, N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸;TASK-1,TWIK(二孔弱内向整流钾)-相关,酸敏感钾通道I型;HCN1,超极化激活阳离子通道1型。
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改编自Rudolph, U.&Antkowiak, B.‘Molecular and neuronal substrates for general anaesthetics’.Nature Reviews Neuroscience,809-20(2004)
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13 Stiles, J.&Jernigan, T. L.‘The basics of brain development’.Neuropsychology Review ,20,327-48(2010).
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14 Greenfield, S. A.Journey to the Centres of the Mind.(W.H.Freeman,1995);Greenfield, S.A.Tee Private Life of the Brain:Emotions, Consciousness and the Secret of the Self .(Wiley,2000).Koch, C.&Greenfield, Susan.‘How does con-sciousness happen?’Scientific American ,297,76-83(2007).
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15 Tononi, G.&Koch, C.‘The neural correlates of consciousness:an update’.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences ,1124,239-61(2008).
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16 例如(使用氟烷麻醉时),额叶、颞叶、顶叶、枕叶、前扣带回、基底神经节、丘脑、海马、中脑和小脑都在麻醉过程中表现出葡萄糖代谢的减少。Alkire, M.T.et al.‘Functional brain imaging during anesthesia in humans:effects of halothane on global and regional cerebral glucose metabolism’.Anes-thesiology,90,701-9(1999).
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17 Alkire, M. T.,Hudetz, A.G.&Tononi, G.‘Consciousness and anesthesia’.Science ,322,876-80(2008).
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18 Lewis, L. D.et al.‘Rapid fragmentation of neuronal networks at the onset of propofol-induced unconsciousness’.Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,109,E3377-86(2012).
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19 Massimini, M. et al.‘Triggering sleep slow waves by transcranial magnetic stimulation’.Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,104,8496-501(2007).
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20 Hebb, D. O.Tee Organization of Behavior:A Neuropsychological Teeory .(Wiley,1949).
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21 Spatz, H. C.‘Hebb’s concept of synaptic plasticity and neuronal cell assem-blies’.Behavioural Brain Research ,78,3-7(1996).
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22 Kandel, E. R.&Schwartz, J.H.‘Molecular biology of learning:modulation of transmitter release’.Science ,218,433-43(1982).
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23 Hebb,1949.
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24 二十年来,电压敏感染料成像(VSDI)已经从一种新颖的纯技术,发展为一个非常成功和广泛用于再现神经活动的方式。1968年,塔萨基(Ta-saki)等人率先使用VSDI测量乌贼巨轴突的电活动。该技术主要是由艾伦·瓦格纳(Alan Waggoner)开发(Waggoner, A.S.Journal of Membrane Biology ,27,317-34,他合成并筛选了大量各种类型的染料。在我们所用染料的作用起源于电致变色,通常称为斯塔克(Stark)效应,它是磁塞曼(Zeeman)效应的电等价物。染料被归类为电致变色需要三个标准,虽然这还不够:首先,电致变色发生在亚纳秒级,因为它们不依赖于分子运动。其次,吸收光谱或激发光谱的一阶导数,应该与不同光谱有相同的斜率,因为∆ε是∂ε/∂λ比例(ε=“有效”消光)。再次,生色团是不对称的。虽然一些早期的染料如部花青素和菁染料等不符合标准,但di-4-ANEPPS和一些其他的新型染料确实符合标准。这些染料都含有氨基苯乙烯基吡啶生色团。根据这一理论,光激发导致正电荷从分子的嘧啶端转移到氨基端。生色团锚定在膜中,使这个移位的矢量垂直于膜平面,从而平行于电场。根据测算,这种转移的命令为0.3纳米(1纳米为十亿分之一米。)据信,电场因而阻碍了正电荷的分子内重新定位,从而能够让我们测量电压敏感光学效应的大小。对于di-4-ANEPPS来说,我们必须进一步考虑其机制。由场诱导所致的“溶解”,将带电萘团向膜表面移动,并扭曲了分子,从而导致较弱的荧光光谱蓝移、量子产率的降低和光谱的展宽。Grinvald, A.et al.‘Cortical point-spread function and long-range lateral interactions revealed by real-time optical imaging of macaque monkey primary visual cortex’.Journal of Neuroscience ,14,2545-68(1994).Cohen, L.B.et al.‘Changes in axon fluorescence during activity:molecular probes of membrane potential’.Journal of Membrane Biology ,19,1-36(1974).Waggoner, A.S.&Grinvald, A.‘Mechanisms of rapid optical changes of potential sensitive dyes’.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences ,303,217-41(1977).Waggoner, A.S.‘The use of cyanine dyes for the determination of membrane potentials in cells, organelles and vesicles’.Methods in Enzymology ,55,689-95(1979).Fluhler, E.,Burnham, V.G.&Loew, L.M.‘Spectra, membrane binding and potentiomet-ric responses of new charge shift probes’.Biochemistry ,24,5749-55(1985).Ebner, T.J.&Chen, G.‘Use of voltage-sensitive dyes and optical recordings in the central nervous system’.Progress in Neurobiology ,46,463-506(1995).Fromherz, P.&Lambacher, A.‘Spectra of voltage-sensitive fluorescence of styryl-dye in neuron membrane’.Biochimica et Biophysica Acta ,1068,149-56(1991).
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25 然而,VSDI本身不能检测单个动作电位,它的空间分辨率约100x100x100微米,其中包括大约50至100个神经元的细胞体以及它们的关联过程,还有其他数百个神经元。因此,阿米拉姆·格林瓦尔德(Amiram Grin-vald)及其团队率先迈出了量化和验证这些极其短暂结合体至关重要的第一步,他们表明单个神经元的自发放电,与其结合的神经元集合的活动有关。VSDI技术虽然在自下而上方面需要补充性的技术,但从另一方面来看,这项技术非常适合揭示中等层面上脑组织的情况。另请参阅Grinvald, A.et al.‘Cortical point-spread function and long-range lateral interactions re-vealed by real-time optical imaging of macaque monkey primary visual cortex’.Journal of Neuroscience ,14,2545-68(1994).Arieli, A.&Grinvald, A.‘Optical imaging combined with targeted electrical recordings, microstimulation or trac-er injections’.Journal of Neuroscientific Methods ,116,15-28(2002).Tominaga, T.et al.‘Quantification of optical signals with electrophysiological signals in neural activities of di-4-ANEPPS stained rat hippocampal slices’.Journal of Neuroscientific Methods ,102,11-23(2000).
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26 我们并没有普遍采用这种神经元集合的定义,而是用这个术语描述某种很不同的现象。例如,皮质柱的同义词是“解剖学层面对神经元网络的比较好的定义”,而睡眠仅仅是先前活动状态的产物,反过来又依赖于传统的传输。Krueger J.M.et al.‘Sleep as a fundamental property of neuronal assemblies’.National Review of Neuroscience ,9(12):910-19(2008).
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27 Grinvald et al. 1994.
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28 Devonshire, I. M.et al.‘Effects of urethane anaesthesia on sensory processing in the rat barrel cortex revealed by combined optical imaging and electrophysiology’.European Journal of Neuroscience ,32,786-97(2010).
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29 Grinvald et al.,1994.
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