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54 He, S.-B. et al.‘Exercise intervention may prevent depression’.International Journal of Sports Medicine ，33，525-30（2012）.
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55 Frodl, T.&O’Keane, V.‘How does the brain deal with cumulative stress?A review with focus on developmental stress, HPA axis function and hippocampal structure in humans’.Neurobiology of Disease ，52，24-37（2013）.
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56 Cakır, B.et al.‘Stress-induced multiple organ damage in rats is ameliorated by the antioxidant and anxiolytic effects of regular exercise’.Cell Biochemistry and Function ，28，469-79（2010）.Schoenfeld等人，于2013年，在正在奔跑的动物的海马体中发现了新的兴奋性和抑制性细胞；此外，奔跑中的动物在接触到压力源后，会经历更短的压力发作期：“奔跑动物的海马体与久立不动的动物大不相同，它们不仅有更多兴奋性神经元和突触，而且更容易激活抑制性神经元，可能是处于应激状态时，更容易抑制兴奋性神经元。”Schoenfeld T.J.et al.‘Physical exercise prevents stress-induced activation of granule neurons and enhances local inhibitory mechanisms in the dentate gyrus’.Journal of Neuroscience ，33（18）：7770-7（2013）.另一项有趣的研究表明，适度运动和安静休息有助于缓解未来的压力（Smith，2013）。虽然这两种方法都在短期内减轻了压力，但看情绪图片时，安静休息组被试比运动组更有压力。Smith, J.C.‘Effects of emotional exposure on state anxiety after acute exercise’.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise ，45（2）：372-8（2013）；以及Nakajima, S.et al.‘Regular voluntary exercise cures stress-induced impair-ment of cognitive function and cell proliferation accompanied by increases in cerebral IGF-1 and GST activity in mice’.Behavioural Brain Research ，211，178-84（2010）
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57 Nokia, M. et al.‘Learning to learn：theta oscillations predict new learning, which enhances related learning and neurogenesis’.PLoS One ，7，e31375（2012）.
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58 Begley，2009.
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59 Devonshire, I. M.et al.‘Environmental enrichment differentially modifes specifc components of sensory-evoked activity in rat barrel cortex as revealed by simultaneous electrophysiological recordings and optical imaging in vivo’.Neuroscience ，170，662-9（2010）.
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60 同上。
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61 相较麻醉大鼠，清醒大鼠的神经元集合的振幅更大，同时在空间范围上也更要大得多。Ferezou I, Bolea S.&Petersen C.C.‘Visualizing the cortical representation of whisker touch：voltage-sensitive dye imaging in freely moving mice’.Neuron ，50，617-29（2006）.
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62 Greenfield，2011.
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第四章 早餐
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1 Reich, L. et al.‘A ventral visual stream reading center independent of visual experience’.Current Biology ，21，363-8（2011）.
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2 Neville, H. J.&Lawson, D.‘Attention to central and peripheral visual space in a movement detection task：an event-related potential and behavioral study.II.Congenitally deaf adults’.Brain Research ，405，268-83（1987）.
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3 Karns, C. M.，Dow, M.W.&Neville, H.J.‘Altered cross-modal processing in the primary auditory cortex of congenitally deaf adults：a visual-somatosensory fMRI study with a double-flash illusion’.Journal of Neuroscience ，32，9626-38（2012）.
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4 Gougoux, F. et al.‘Neuropsychology：pitch discrimination in the early blind’.Nature ，430，309（2004）.
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5 Lessard, N. et al.‘Early-blind human subjects localize sound sources better than sighted subjects’.Nature ，395，278-80（1998）.
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6 Röder, B.et al.‘Semantic and morpho-syntactic priming in auditory word rec-ognition in congenitally blind adults’.Language and Cognitive Processes ，18，1-20（2003）.
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7 Bull, R.，Rathborn, H.&Clifford, B. R.‘The voice-recognition accuracy of blind listeners’.Perception ，12，223-6（1983）.
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8 Petrus, E. et al.‘Crossmodal induction of thalamocortical potentiation leads to enhanced information processing in the auditory cortex’.Neuron ，81，664-73（2014）.
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9 Terhune, D. B.et al.‘Enhanced cortical excitability in grapheme-color synesthe-sia and its modulation’.Current Biology ，21，2006-9（2011）.
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10 Liotta, A. et al.‘Partial disinhibition is required for transition of stimulus-induced sharp wave-ripple complexes into recurrent epileptiform discharges in rat hippocampal slices’.Journal of Neurophysiology ，105，172-87（2011）.
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11 Rockel, A. J.，Hiorns, R.W.&Powell, T.P.‘The basic uniformity in structure of the neocortex’.Brain ，103，221-44（1980）.另一方面，有些人可能认为，皮层类似饼干模具的细胞结构不是一成不变的，可以用视觉和听觉通路的各种解剖学差异来说明。从成像数据来看，输入听觉信息时形成的分布模式可能与视觉皮层非常不同。例如，听觉皮层通常接收两只耳朵的信息输入，从皮层之下的脑区传入进来，而视觉皮层只接收两个视觉半区的信息输入。此外，从皮层下中继站（丘脑）到视皮层的主要输入，通常终止于皮层中的某一层（第四层），而在听觉皮层，一些丘脑输入分布更广（延伸到第三层），而另一些则在其他地方终止（第一层）。LeVay, S.&Gilbert, C.D.‘Laminar patterns of geniculocortical projection in the cat’.Brain Research ，113（1），1-19（1976）.Smith, P.H.&Populin, L.C.‘Fundamental differences between the thalamocortical recipient layers of the cat auditory and visual cortices’.Journal of Comparative Neurology ，436（4），508-19（2001）.Huang, C.L.&Winer, J.A.‘Auditory thalamocortical projections in the cat：laminar and areal patterns of input’.Journal of Comparative Neurology ，427（2），302-31（2000）.
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12 Libet, B.Mind Time：Tee Temporal Factor in Consciousness .（Harvard University Press，2004）.
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13 VanRullen, R.&Thorpe, S. J.‘The time course of visual processing：from early perception to decision-making’.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience ，13，454-61（2001）.
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14 Libet，2004.
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15 Chakraborty, S.，Sandberg, A.&Greenfield, S. A.‘Differential dynamics of transient neuronal assemblies in visual compared to auditory cortex’.Experimental Brain Research ，182，491-8（2007）.
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