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18 Davis, K. F.,Parker, K.P.&Montgomery, G.L.‘Sleep in infants and young children:part one:normal sleep’.Journal of Pediatric Health Care ,18,65-71(2004).
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19 http://www. babble.com/baby/baby-sleep-tips/baby-sleep-tips-1/www.babble.com/baby/baby-sleep/
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20 Hobson&Friston,2012.
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21 虽然NREM(非快速眼动)睡眠在记忆的巩固中可能起到了非常重要的作用:O’Neill J.et al.‘Play it again:reactivation of waking experience and memory’.Trends in Neuroscience ,33(5),220-9(2010).
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22 Kumar, S.&Sagili, H.‘Etiopathogenesis and neurobiology of narcolepsy:a review’.Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research ,8,190-5(2014).
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23 Morrison, A. R.‘A window on the sleeping brain’inThe Workings of the Brain:Development, Memory and Perception (ed.Llinas, R.R.),133-148(W.H.Free-man,1990).
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24 Nir&Tononi,2010.
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25 Llinás, R.R.&Paré,D.‘Of dreaming and wakefulness’.Neuroscience ,44,521-35(1991).
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26 理奈斯和帕尔的实验设计中依旧存在许多谜团,例如如何解释跨物种间和胎儿所表现出意识水平的巨大差异等。然而,从简单的丘脑皮层动力学上看,不同物种间普遍存在的这些广泛差异并没有那么显而易见,一些旨在改变意识状态的精神药物对个人意识水平带来的影响也是微不足道的。顺带一提,最近的热门理论:在由托诺尼和科赫一起提出的丘脑皮层回路理论中,二人认为丘脑皮层网络中存在一种“双稳态”(bistability),暗示意识是一种非全即无的状态,并且因此是由某种神经元开关加以控制的——这种理论也存在着相似的问题。Tononi, G.&Koch, C.‘The neural correlates of consciousness:an update’.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences ,1124,239-61(2008).
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27 Plum, F. in‘Coma and related disturbances of the human conscious state’.Cerebral Cortex Vol.9:Normal and Altered States and Function (eds.Peters, A.&Jones, E.G.)359-426(Plenum Press,1991);另请参阅 Young, G.B.,Ropper, A.H.&Bolton, C.E.Coma and Impaired Consciousness:A Clinical Perspective .(McGraw Hill,1998).
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28 顶叶——枕叶——颞部交叉区包含了一部分顶叶,一部分颞叶和一部分枕叶,该区域作为听觉、视觉和身体感觉输入的整合区,同时将信息输出到包括边缘区和前额叶在内的其他广泛的区域中去。另请参阅:Maquet, P.et al.‘Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming’.Nature ,383,163-6(1996).
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29 Epstein, A. W.‘Effect of certain cerebral hemispheric diseases on dreaming’.Biological Psychiatry ,14,77-93(1979);另请参阅Maquet, P.‘Functional neu-roimaging of normal human sleep by positron emission tomography’.Journal of Sleep Research,9,207-31(2000);以及Jakobson, A.J.,Fitzgerald, P.B.&Conduit, R.‘Induction of visual dream reports after transcranial direct current stimulation(tDCs)during Stage 2 sleep’.Journal of Sleep Research ,21,369-79(2012).
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30 Solms, M.‘Dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mecha-nisms’.Behavioral and Brain Sciences ,23,843-50;discussion 904-1121(2000).
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31 Büchel, C.et al.‘Different activation patterns in the visual cortex of late and congenitally blind subjects’.Brain ,121,Pt 3,409-19(1998).
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32 同上。
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33 Horikawa, T. et al.‘Neural decoding of visual imagery during sleep’.Science ,340,639-42(2013).
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34 Nir&Tononi,2010.
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35 同上。
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36 Penfield, W.&Perot, P.‘The brain’s record of auditory and visual experience. A final summary and discussion’.Brain ,86,595-696(1963).
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37 Hobson, J. A.The Chemistry of Conscious States:How the Brain Changes Its Mind .(Little, Brown&Co.,1994);另请参阅Scarone, S.et al.‘The dream as a model for psychosis:an experimental approach using bizarreness as a cognitive marker’.Schizophrenia Bulletin ,34,515-22(2008);以及Limosani, I.et al.‘The dreaming brain/mind, consciousness and psychosis’.Consciousness and Cognition ,20,987-92(2011).
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38 Brisch, R. et al.‘The role of dopamine in schizophrenia from a neurobiological and evolutionary perspective:old-fashioned, but still in vogue’.Frontiers in Psychiatry ,5,47(2014).
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39 Solms, M.&Turnbull, O.Tee Brain and the Inner World .(Other Press,2002).
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40 Monti, J. M.&Monti, D.‘The involvement of dopamine in the modulation of sleep and waking’.Sleep Medicine Reviews ,11,113-33(2007).
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41 通常情况下,多巴胺的分泌受到一种与快速眼动睡眠密切相关的神经递质的调节,这种神经递质被称为乙酰胆碱(ACh),它在大脑和脑干深部发挥着作用:然而,当乙酰胆碱系统不能运作时,多巴胺也可以独立地在皮层上发挥作用,就像在独立于快速眼动睡眠的梦境中所表现的那样。此时,多巴胺在指令链中的位置进一步上升,超过了产生快速眼动睡眠的脑干机制,更直接地作用于前额叶皮层的最终过程,而这些过程与实际的梦其本身有关。那么是什么导致多巴胺在这种情况下被释放的呢?什么也不是。事实证明不需要其他任何东西,甚至连感觉输入都不需要。在听觉和视觉等感官都缺失的情况下,以及当乙酰胆碱不发挥作用时,正如在非快速眼动睡眠的梦境中那样,脑干中的多巴胺细胞表现出一种“自动节律性”:一个兴奋性不断变化的持续周期,在这个周期中,兴奋性的不断变化导致周期性的动作电位爆发,进而导致多巴胺在“高级”目标脑区释放。Grace, A.A.&Bunney, B.S.‘The control of firing pattern in nigral dopamine neurons:burst firing’.Journal of Neuroscience ,4,2877-90(1984).Grace, A.A.&Bunney, B.S.‘The control of firing pattern in nigral dopamine neurons:single spike firing’.Journal of Neuroscience ,4,2866-76(1984).
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42 Ferron, A. et al.‘Inhibitory influence of the mesocortical dopaminergic system on spontaneous activity or excitatory response induced from the thalamic me-diodorsal nucleus in the rat medial prefrontal cortex’.Brain Research ,302,257-65(1984);另请参阅Gao, W.-J.,Wang, Y.&Goldman-Rakic, P.S.‘Dopamine modulation of perisomatic and peridendritic inhibition in prefrontal cortex’.Journal of Neuroscience ,23,1622-30(2003).
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