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51 Cheramy, A.,Leviel, V.&Glowinski, J.‘Dendritic release of dopamine in the substantia nigra’.Nature ,289,537-42(1981). Greenfield, S.et al.‘In vivo release of acetylcholinesterase in cat substantia nigra and caudate nucleus’.Nature ,284,355-7(1980).Greenfield, S.A.‘The signifcance of dendritic release of transmitter and protein in the substantia nigra’.Neurochemistry International ,7,887-901(1985).Nedergaard, S.,Bolam, J.P.&Greenfield, S.A.‘Facilitation of a dendritic calcium conductance by 5-hydroxytryptamine in the substantia nigra’.Nature ,333,174-7(1988).Chen, B.T.et al.‘Differential calcium dependence of axonal versus somatodendritic dopamine release, with characteristics of both in the ventral tegmental area’.Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience ,5,39(2011).Mercer, L.,del Fiacco, M.&Cuello, A.C.‘The smooth endoplasmic reticulum as a possible storage site for dendritic dopamine in substantia nigra neurones’.Experientia ,35,101-3(1979).
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52 在哺乳动物中,大脑皮层的传导速度在0.1到0.5米/秒之间;也就是说,动作电位沿着轴突(axon)传递的速度是100到500毫米/秒(0.1到0.5毫米/毫秒)。与这一速度一致的是,当刺激从其来源发出后(例如,丘脑,一个突触,间距有2.5毫米),大脑皮层中神经元集合形成的第一个信号出现在5毫秒的时候(图10)。但随后,一旦出现了两个区域之间的突触传递,神经元集合需要额外花费15至20毫秒来达到最大速度,这一速度慢的惊人,以至于突触无法靠其自身进行传递,当然对于被动扩散来说这一速度还是太快了。González-Burgos, G.,Barrionuevo, G.&Lewis, D.A.‘Horizontal synaptic connections in monkey prefrontal cortex:anin vitro elec-trophysiological study’.Cerebral Cortex ,10,82-92(2000).Stuart, G.,Schiller, J.&Sakmann, B.‘Action potential initiation and propagation in rat neocortical pyramidal neurons’.Journal of Physiology ,505(Pt 3)617-32(1997).
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53 两个并列的细胞分别形成一个半通道共同组成了间隙连接,这两个半通道由蛋白质(连接类蛋白)构成。
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54 Draguhn, A. et al.‘Electrical coupling underlies high-frequency oscillations in the hippocampusin vitro ‘.Nature ,394,189-92(1998).
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55 纯粹就“高速的”神经活动而言,200Hz震荡与神经元集合中的信号强度有多大的可比性呢?这一速度的频率意味着动作电位通常每5毫秒产生一次,因此,在一个神经元集合时间窗口中大约有60次动作电位:我们目前的计算能够解释这种活动水平,该活动可以通过电磁机制在荧光信号中,以周期性超极化的形式显现出来,因为自体波(self-substance wave)震荡的快慢没有限制。Huang H.et al.‘Remote control of ion channels and neurones through magnetic-feld heating of nanoparticles’,Nature Nanotechnology ,5,602(2011).Anastassiou C.A.et al.‘The effect of spatially inhomo-geneous extracellular electric fields on neurones’.Journal of Neuroscience ,30,1925(2010).
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56 Masson, G. S.&Ilg, U.W.Dynamics of Visual Motion Processing:Neuronal, Behavioral and Computational Approaches .(Springer,2010).
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57 例如,视网膜中缝隙连接的表达与神经递质多巴胺的可用性成反比,此外人们认为电信号连接和化学突触通常作为一个相互协调的整体共同发挥作用。He, S.,Weiler, R.&Vaney, D.I.‘Endogenous dopaminergic regulation of horizontal cell coupling in the mammalian retina’.Journal of Comparative Neurology ,418,33-40(2000).Pereda, A.E.‘Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses’.Nature Reviews Neuroscience ,15,250-63(2014).
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58 Chakraborty, Sandberg&Greenfield,2007.
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59 Bachmann, T.Microgenetic Approach to the Conscious Mind .(John Benja-mins,2000).
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60 Vogel, E. K.,Luck, S.J.&Shapiro, K.L.‘Electrophysiological evidence for a postperceptual locus of suppression during the attentional blink’.Journal of Experimental Psychology.Human Perception and Performance ,24,1656-74(1998);另请参阅 Sergent, Baillet&Dehaene,2005.
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61 Collins, T. F.T.et al.‘Dynamics of neuronal assemblies are modulated by anaesthetics but not analgesics’.European Journal of Anaesthesiology ,24,609-14(2007).
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62 Chakraborty, Sandberg&Greenfield,2007.
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63 Kendig, J. J.,Grossman, Y.&MacIver, M.B.‘Pressure reversal of anaesthesia:a synaptic mechanism’.British Journal of Anaesthesia ,60,806-16(1988).
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64 Wlodarczyk, A.,McMillan, P. F.&Greenfield, S.A.‘High pressure effects in anaesthesia and narcosis’.Chemical Society Reviews ,35,890-8(2006).
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65 Wu, J.-Y.,Xiaoying Huang&Chuan Zhang.‘Propagating waves of activity in the neocortex:what they are, what they do’. Neuroscientist,14,487-502(2008);另请参阅Muller, L.&Destexhe, A.‘Propagating waves in thalamus, cortex and the thalamocortical system:experiments and models’.Journal of Physiology-Paris ,106,222-38(2012).
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66 Ferreira, P. G.The State of the Universe .(Phoenix,2007).
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大脑的一天 图片版权
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Fig.3(Plate 3)from Chemical Society Reviews, 35, 897(2006), reprinted with the permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry;
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Fig.4(Plate 4)modified from European Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 793(2010), with the permission of John Wiley and Sons;
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Fig.8 from Experimental Brain Research, 182, 495(2007), reprinted with the permission of Springer;
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Fig.9 modified from Progress in Brain Research,150,12(2005), with the permission of Elsevier; Table on P.299 modified from Nature Reviews of Neuroscience, 5, 713, Box 2(2004), with the permission of Nature Publishing Group.
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