打字猴:1.700687e+09
1700687000 第二章 醒来
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1700687002 1  θ波的特点是振幅为10微伏,频率为4到8每秒赫兹。Lancel, M.‘Cortical and subcortical EEG in relation to sleep-wake behavior in mammalian species’.Neuropsychobiology ,28(3),154-9(1993).Bas ̧ar E.&Güntekin B.‘Review of delta, theta, alpha, beta and gamma response oscillations in neuropsychiatric disorders’.Supplements to Clinical Neurophysiology ,62,303-41(2013).
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1700687004 2  REM睡眠的持续时间,从第一个周期的10分钟,增加到最后一个周期的50分钟。请参阅28章和图表28.7 A in Purves, D.et al.(eds.)Neuroscience .(Sinauer,2012).
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1700687006 3  同上。
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1700687008 4  长期以来,我们都认为多巴胺、去甲肾上腺素、组胺、5-羟色胺和乙酰胆碱是典型的脑细胞过程(轴突终末)释放出来的“经典”递质,它们通过窄间隙(突触)进入下一个靶细胞。然后,神经递质进入一个分子,与其中“量身定制”的蛋白质(一种受体)结合,从而在靶细胞中产生新的动作电位。更详细的记录请参阅Kandel, E.,Schwartz, James H.&Jessell, T.,Principles of Neural Science ,5th edn(Elsevier,2012).
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1700687010 5  Aston-Jones, G.&Bloom, F. E.‘Activity of norepinephrine-containing locus coeruleus neurons in behaving rats anticipates fluctuations in the sleep-waking cycle’.Journal of Neuroscience ,1,876-86(1981);另请参阅Kocsis, B.et al.‘Serotonergic neuron diversity:identification of raphe neurons with discharges time-locked to the hippocampal theta rhythm’.Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,103,1059-64(2006);以及Steininger, T.L.et al.‘Sleep-waking discharge of neurons in the posterior lateral hypothalamus of the albino rat’.Brain Research ,840,138-47(1999);以及Takahashi, K.,Lin, J.-S.&Sakai, K.‘Neuronal activity of histaminergic tuberomammillary neurons during wake-sleep states in the mouse’.Journal of Neuroscience ,26,10292-8(2006);以及Takahashi, K.et al.‘Locus coeruleus neuronal activity during the sleep-waking cycle in mice’.Neuroscience ,169,1115-26(2010);以及Jacobs, B.L.&Fornal, C.A.‘Activity of brain seroto-nergic neurons in the behaving animal’.Pharmacological Reviews ,43,563-78(1991).
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1700687012 6  Hobson, J. A.‘Sleep and dreaming:induction and mediation of REM sleep by cholinergic mechanisms’.Opinion in Neurobiology ,2,6,759-63(Dec.1992).
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1700687014 7  Lee, S. H.&Dan, Y.‘Neuromodulation of brain states’.Neuron ,76,109-222(2012).
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1700687016 8  Greenfield, S. A.Tee Private Life of the Brain (Penguin,2000).通过乙酰胆碱调节的两个截然不同的例子,见:Cole, A.E.&Nicoll, R.A.‘Acetylcholine mediates a slow synaptic potential in hippocampal pyramidal cells’.Science ,221,1299-301(1983);以及McCormick, D.A.&Prince, D.A.‘Mechanisms of action of acetylcholine in the guinea-pig cerebral cortex in vitro’.Journal of Physiology ,375,169-94(1986).
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1700687018 9  Guedel, A. E.Inhalational Anesthesia:A Fundamental Guide .(Macmillan,1937).
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1700687020 10  同时,可能的第四个阶段(只是一种理论设想)是在如此多的麻醉过程中,脊髓上方的大脑原始区域(即脑干)的脑细胞仍然存活,但停止了重要的动作电位。由于这些细胞控制呼吸和心率,因此你会停止呼吸,血压会降到危及生命的程度,损害重要器官的运转。换句话说,你会死亡。但这并非让人最担心的,因为Guedel把“这些危险”的原因描述为缺氧和低血压的结合,实际上是由大脑的高剂量麻醉效果引起的,现在这些危险已经减轻了,而且是潜在可逆转的。
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1700687022 11  BIS监测测量麻醉对脑电信号大小和/或协调的影响,输出结果用一个单一的数字代表。为此,BIS传达的真正价值和信息实际上充满争议。所有医生都承认BIS测量的一个缺点是,不能同时反映所有麻醉作用,对某些引起神志不清的药物(如氧化亚氮、氯胺酮和氙)不敏感。对于这种受限的敏感性,有一种理论解释是以BIS脑电图为基础的监测,只能跟踪特殊的脑变化,这种脑变化是由特定麻醉剂主要通过某些化学系统引起的,而不是其他路径。Pandit, J.J.&Cook, T.M.‘National Institute for Clinical Excellence guidance on measuring depth of anaesthesia:limitations of EEG-based technology’.British Journal of Anaesthesia ,112,385-6(2014).
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1700687024 12  有时,结论很大程度上依赖于统计解释,这些解释并非不言自明,需要大量的努力和培训来复制。例如,李恩哲(UnCheol Lee)及其团队报告,氯胺酮确实对异丙酚和七氟醚产生的脑电图产生不同的影响。为了得出这个结论,他们不得不使用复杂的数学和统计算法,但与此同时,他们也承认,其他使用同样复杂数据分析的研究基本都产生了相反的结果。Barrett, A.B.et al.‘Granger causality analysis of steady-state electro-enceph-alographic signals during propofol-induced anaesthesia’.PLoS One ,7(2012).Cruse, D.et al.‘Detecting awareness in the vegetative state:electroencephalo-graphic evidence for attempted movements to command’.PLoS One ,7,e49933(2012).Goldfine, A.M.et al.‘Reanalysis of“Bedside detection of awareness in the vegetative state:a cohort study”’.Lancet ,381,289-91(2013).Lee, U.et al.‘Disruption of frontal-parietal communication by ketamine, propofol and sevoflurane’.Anesthesiology ,118,1264-75(2013).Mashour, G.A.&Avidan, M.S.‘Capturing covert consciousness’.Lancet ,381,271-2(2013).Menon, R.&Kim, S.‘Spatial and temporal limits in cognitive neuroimaging with fMRI’.Trends in Cognitive Science ,3,207-16(1999).Nicolaou, N.,Hourris, S.,Alexan-drou, P.&Georgiou, J.‘EEG-based automatic classification of“awake”versus“anesthetized”state in general anesthesia using Granger causality’.PLoS One ,7,e33869(2012).最近新的尝试是一个研究团队使用复杂的脑电图分析认为,处于持续性植物状态的病人很可能是有意识的,但其他团队对同一数据重新分析的结果否认了这一提议。事实上,另一个医疗结构甚至声称:“意识状态的解释完全是基于神经生理学的数据,这在很大程度上依赖于统计模型。”与此同时,另一种脑成像方法远非理想。功能磁共振成像和其他扫描技术能读出大脑内部的血液流动,而不是神经元活动的直接信息。正如我们在上一章中看到的,测量大脑事件的时间窗与实时效果并不相称。因此,运用这些方法难以评估不同麻醉剂的差异,也因此更难解释一个单一、共同及最终的大脑过程。
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1700687026 对主要的假定备选受体/通道的麻醉作用的概述
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1700687031 图例:
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1700687036 GABA-A,γ-氨基丁酸A型;nACh,烟碱乙酰胆碱;5HT3,5-羟色胺(血清素)3型;AMPA,α-氨基-3-羟基-5-甲基-4-异恶唑丙酸;NMDA, N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸;TASK-1,TWIK(二孔弱内向整流钾)-相关,酸敏感钾通道I型;HCN1,超极化激活阳离子通道1型。
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1700687038 改编自Rudolph, U.&Antkowiak, B.‘Molecular and neuronal substrates for general anaesthetics’.Nature Reviews Neuroscience,809-20(2004)
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1700687040 13  Stiles, J.&Jernigan, T. L.‘The basics of brain development’.Neuropsychology Review ,20,327-48(2010).
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1700687042 14  Greenfield, S. A.Journey to the Centres of the Mind.(W.H.Freeman,1995);Greenfield, S.A.Tee Private Life of the Brain:Emotions, Consciousness and the Secret of the Self .(Wiley,2000).Koch, C.&Greenfield, Susan.‘How does con-sciousness happen?’Scientific American ,297,76-83(2007).
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1700687044 15  Tononi, G.&Koch, C.‘The neural correlates of consciousness:an update’.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences ,1124,239-61(2008).
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1700687046 16  例如(使用氟烷麻醉时),额叶、颞叶、顶叶、枕叶、前扣带回、基底神经节、丘脑、海马、中脑和小脑都在麻醉过程中表现出葡萄糖代谢的减少。Alkire, M.T.et al.‘Functional brain imaging during anesthesia in humans:effects of halothane on global and regional cerebral glucose metabolism’.Anes-thesiology,90,701-9(1999).
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1700687048 17  Alkire, M. T.,Hudetz, A.G.&Tononi, G.‘Consciousness and anesthesia’.Science ,322,876-80(2008).
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