打字猴:1.70242719e+09
1702427190
1702427191 17.Hatton, The Temp Economy.
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1702427193 18.1946年,这一数字仅占美国总人口的3.5%,而当时大约23%的美国劳动者从事制造业。
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1702427195 19.参阅John Barnard,Walter Reuther and the Rise of the Auto Workers(Boston:Little,Brown,1983);Eldorous Dayton,Walter Reuther:The Autocrat of the Bargaining Table(New York:Devin-Adain,1958);Victor Reuther,The Brothers Reuther and the Story of UAW(Boston:Houghton Mifflin,1976);Nelson Lichtenstein,The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit(New York:Basic Books,1995)。
1702427196
1702427197 20.该法案禁止工人未经工会领袖授权就擅自罢工,并要求工会在罢工前80天通知雇主。许多情况下,这进一步要求工会在行使罢工权利之前坐下来进行仲裁。与政治候选人有关的罢工或为扰乱其他企业生产而举行的罢工不再受到保护。此外,《塔夫脱–哈特莱法》还将成立工会当作州权问题,这是工会发展受到的最大打击之一。各州现在可以通过“工作权利法”,禁止在工会组织的工作场所收取工会会费。
1702427198
1702427199 21.从19世纪中叶到20世纪初,报童的任务是为日报直销点兜售报纸,帮助争夺读者。在西方国家,这通常是青少年的第一份工作,大多数是男孩,他们被要求工作很长时间,以避免因报纸没卖完而受罚。参阅M. Schuman,“History of Child Labor in the United States—Part 1:Little Children Working,”Monthly Labor Review,U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,January 2017,https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2017/article/history-of-child-labor-in-the-united-states-part-1.htm;National Labor Relations Board v. Hearst Publications,322 U.S. 111(1944)。
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1702427201 22.参阅National Labor Relations Board,322 U.S. 111(1944);Weil,The Fissured Workplace,185–86。
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1702427203 23.对于每周全勤的人,《公平劳动标准法》要求美国大多数雇员的工资至少要达到联邦最低工资标准;如果每周工作时间超过40个小时,加班工资应该是正常工资标准的1.5倍。无论如何,《公平劳动标准法》第13(a)(1)条规定,作为政府行政人员、企业行政人员、专业人员和外部销售人员,其最低工资和加班工资可以免税。第13(a)(1)条及第13(a)(17)条也豁免了某些计算机雇员。为符合免税资格,雇员通常必须通过一些关于工作职责的测试,并按每周不少于455美元的薪水计算。职位名称不能决定免税身份。为了申请豁免,员工的具体工作职责和工资必须符合劳工部的所有要求。参阅U.S. Department of Labor,Wage and Hour Division,Fact Sheet #17A:Exemption for Executive,Administrative,Professional,Computer & Outside Sales Employees Under the Fair Labor Standards Act(FLSA),rev. July 2008,https://www.dol.gov/whd/overtime/fs17a_overview.pdf。
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1702427205 24.Jonathan Grossman, “Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938: Maximum Struggle for a Minimum Wage,”Office of the Assistant Secretary for Administration and Management, U.S. Department of Labor website. Originally published in Monthly Labor Review, June 1978, https://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/flsa1938.htm.
1702427206
1702427207 25.当地的海岸警卫队(Coast Guard)和海军工厂通过合约雇用年轻女性操作安全线路,这样他们就可以从船上打电话到岸上。战后她们都被解雇了,没有人得到任何形式的福利或遣散费。参阅Jill Frahm,“The Hello Girls:Women Telephone Operators with the American Expeditionary Forces During World War I,”Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 3,no. 3(2004):271–93。
1702427208
1702427209 26.在美国劳工部的博客上,这个定义的一些原始资料已经找不到了。然而,我们通过网络时光机(Wayback Machine)发现了一篇博文的网页快照,作者是前劳工部部长托马斯·佩雷斯(Tom Perez)和前商务部长潘妮·普利茨克(Penny Pritzker),这篇文章是个很好的例子,印证了奥巴马政府中许多人的普遍想法:要想让中产阶级获得成功,必须解决技能上的差距。然而,不同于“中等技能工作”,“博学专业”是指这样的工作:需要比中学教育更多的教育和培训,但不超过四年大学的学位。据称,对能够胜任中等技能工作的工人的需求很高,但太多失业和学非所用的美国人没有接受过相关的培训。过去几十年,商界领袖和政策制定者把这一问题定性为“人才供应链问题”“技能短缺”和“中等技能劳动力危机”。参阅“Middle Skills,”U.S. Competitiveness,Harvard Business School website,accessed May 22,2018,https://www.hbs.edu/competitiveness/research/Pages/middle-skills.aspx;Francis Green,Skills and Skilled Work:An Economic and Social Analysis(Oxford,England:Oxford University Press,2013);Tom Perez and Penny Pritzker,“A Joint Imperative to Strengthen Skills,”The Commerce Blog,U.S. Department of Commerce,September 11,2013;and Peter Smith,Free-Range Learning in the Digital Age:The Emerging Revolution in College,Career,and Education(New York:SelectBooks,2018)。
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1702427211 27.参阅Jennifer Light,“When Computers Were Women,”Technology and Culture 40,no. 3(July 1999),455–83;Greg Downey,“Virtual Webs,Physical Technologies,and Hidden Workers,”Technology and Culture 42,no. 2(April 2001):209–35;David Allen Grier,When Computers Were Human(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2005)。
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1702427213 28.1958年,兰利机场成为NASA兰利研究中心,又名“NASA Langley”和“LaRC”。
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1702427215 29.Nathalia Holt, Rise of the Rocket Girls: The Women Who Propelled Us, from Missiles to the Moon to Mars, reprint (New York: Back Bay, 2017).
1702427216
1702427217 30.Margot Lee Shetterly, Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win theSpace Race, media tie-in ed. (New York: William Morrow, 2016), 4.
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1702427219 31.Ibid.
1702427220
1702427221 32.Ibid., 21.
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1702427223 33.Ibid., 61.
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1702427225 34.Holt, Rocket Girls.
1702427226
1702427227 35.Ibid.
1702427228
1702427229 36.Ibid.
1702427230
1702427231 37.Hatton, The Temp Economy.
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1702427233 38.Geetha Vaidyanathan, “Technology Parks in a Developing Country: The Case of India,”Journal of Technology Transfer 33, no.3 (June 1, 2008): 285–99; Dinesh C. Sharma, The Outsourcer: The Story of India’s IT Revolution (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015).
1702427234
1702427235 39.Weil, The Fissured Workplace.
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1702427237 40.Hatton, The Temp Economy; S. Greenhouse, “Equal Work, Less-Equal Perks: Microsoft Leads the Way in Filling Jobs With‘Permatemps’,”New York Times, March 30, 1998; J. Stoiber, “Independent Contractors Should Get Benefits,”Philadelphia Inquirer, October 20, 1996.
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1702427239 41.利维和莫尼恩的概念——“专家思维”和“复杂沟通”——是理解计算机与人类之间分工的技术原因的好方法。在利维和莫尼恩看来,专家思维需要“解决没有常规解决方案的新问题”,复杂沟通则涉及“说服、解释,或以其他方式传达对信息的特定理解”。美国劳动力完成的其他任务包括:“常规认知工作”,像是维护费用报表和其他“可以用逻辑规则准确描述”的服务;“常规体力工作”,像是“可以用规则准确描述的任务”,比如“安装挡风玻璃”;“需要光学识别和精细的电机控制的、不能用一系列‘如果……就……’规则准确描述的非常规体力工作”,“比如驾驶卡车”。“这种开发、生产、销售新产品的动力,依赖于人类管理、解决和分析问题以及沟通新信息的能力,因此它对专家思维和复杂沟通具有强烈的需求。”参阅Frank Levy and Richard Murnane,The New Division of Labor:How Computers Are Creatingthe Next Job Market(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2004)。
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