打字猴:1.702427201e+09
1702427201 22.参阅National Labor Relations Board,322 U.S. 111(1944);Weil,The Fissured Workplace,185–86。
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1702427203 23.对于每周全勤的人,《公平劳动标准法》要求美国大多数雇员的工资至少要达到联邦最低工资标准;如果每周工作时间超过40个小时,加班工资应该是正常工资标准的1.5倍。无论如何,《公平劳动标准法》第13(a)(1)条规定,作为政府行政人员、企业行政人员、专业人员和外部销售人员,其最低工资和加班工资可以免税。第13(a)(1)条及第13(a)(17)条也豁免了某些计算机雇员。为符合免税资格,雇员通常必须通过一些关于工作职责的测试,并按每周不少于455美元的薪水计算。职位名称不能决定免税身份。为了申请豁免,员工的具体工作职责和工资必须符合劳工部的所有要求。参阅U.S. Department of Labor,Wage and Hour Division,Fact Sheet #17A:Exemption for Executive,Administrative,Professional,Computer & Outside Sales Employees Under the Fair Labor Standards Act(FLSA),rev. July 2008,https://www.dol.gov/whd/overtime/fs17a_overview.pdf。
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1702427205 24.Jonathan Grossman, “Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938: Maximum Struggle for a Minimum Wage,”Office of the Assistant Secretary for Administration and Management, U.S. Department of Labor website. Originally published in Monthly Labor Review, June 1978, https://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/flsa1938.htm.
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1702427207 25.当地的海岸警卫队(Coast Guard)和海军工厂通过合约雇用年轻女性操作安全线路,这样他们就可以从船上打电话到岸上。战后她们都被解雇了,没有人得到任何形式的福利或遣散费。参阅Jill Frahm,“The Hello Girls:Women Telephone Operators with the American Expeditionary Forces During World War I,”Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 3,no. 3(2004):271–93。
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1702427209 26.在美国劳工部的博客上,这个定义的一些原始资料已经找不到了。然而,我们通过网络时光机(Wayback Machine)发现了一篇博文的网页快照,作者是前劳工部部长托马斯·佩雷斯(Tom Perez)和前商务部长潘妮·普利茨克(Penny Pritzker),这篇文章是个很好的例子,印证了奥巴马政府中许多人的普遍想法:要想让中产阶级获得成功,必须解决技能上的差距。然而,不同于“中等技能工作”,“博学专业”是指这样的工作:需要比中学教育更多的教育和培训,但不超过四年大学的学位。据称,对能够胜任中等技能工作的工人的需求很高,但太多失业和学非所用的美国人没有接受过相关的培训。过去几十年,商界领袖和政策制定者把这一问题定性为“人才供应链问题”“技能短缺”和“中等技能劳动力危机”。参阅“Middle Skills,”U.S. Competitiveness,Harvard Business School website,accessed May 22,2018,https://www.hbs.edu/competitiveness/research/Pages/middle-skills.aspx;Francis Green,Skills and Skilled Work:An Economic and Social Analysis(Oxford,England:Oxford University Press,2013);Tom Perez and Penny Pritzker,“A Joint Imperative to Strengthen Skills,”The Commerce Blog,U.S. Department of Commerce,September 11,2013;and Peter Smith,Free-Range Learning in the Digital Age:The Emerging Revolution in College,Career,and Education(New York:SelectBooks,2018)。
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1702427211 27.参阅Jennifer Light,“When Computers Were Women,”Technology and Culture 40,no. 3(July 1999),455–83;Greg Downey,“Virtual Webs,Physical Technologies,and Hidden Workers,”Technology and Culture 42,no. 2(April 2001):209–35;David Allen Grier,When Computers Were Human(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2005)。
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1702427213 28.1958年,兰利机场成为NASA兰利研究中心,又名“NASA Langley”和“LaRC”。
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1702427215 29.Nathalia Holt, Rise of the Rocket Girls: The Women Who Propelled Us, from Missiles to the Moon to Mars, reprint (New York: Back Bay, 2017).
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1702427217 30.Margot Lee Shetterly, Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win theSpace Race, media tie-in ed. (New York: William Morrow, 2016), 4.
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1702427219 31.Ibid.
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1702427221 32.Ibid., 21.
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1702427223 33.Ibid., 61.
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1702427225 34.Holt, Rocket Girls.
1702427226
1702427227 35.Ibid.
1702427228
1702427229 36.Ibid.
1702427230
1702427231 37.Hatton, The Temp Economy.
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1702427233 38.Geetha Vaidyanathan, “Technology Parks in a Developing Country: The Case of India,”Journal of Technology Transfer 33, no.3 (June 1, 2008): 285–99; Dinesh C. Sharma, The Outsourcer: The Story of India’s IT Revolution (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015).
1702427234
1702427235 39.Weil, The Fissured Workplace.
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1702427237 40.Hatton, The Temp Economy; S. Greenhouse, “Equal Work, Less-Equal Perks: Microsoft Leads the Way in Filling Jobs With‘Permatemps’,”New York Times, March 30, 1998; J. Stoiber, “Independent Contractors Should Get Benefits,”Philadelphia Inquirer, October 20, 1996.
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1702427239 41.利维和莫尼恩的概念——“专家思维”和“复杂沟通”——是理解计算机与人类之间分工的技术原因的好方法。在利维和莫尼恩看来,专家思维需要“解决没有常规解决方案的新问题”,复杂沟通则涉及“说服、解释,或以其他方式传达对信息的特定理解”。美国劳动力完成的其他任务包括:“常规认知工作”,像是维护费用报表和其他“可以用逻辑规则准确描述”的服务;“常规体力工作”,像是“可以用规则准确描述的任务”,比如“安装挡风玻璃”;“需要光学识别和精细的电机控制的、不能用一系列‘如果……就……’规则准确描述的非常规体力工作”,“比如驾驶卡车”。“这种开发、生产、销售新产品的动力,依赖于人类管理、解决和分析问题以及沟通新信息的能力,因此它对专家思维和复杂沟通具有强烈的需求。”参阅Frank Levy and Richard Murnane,The New Division of Labor:How Computers Are Creatingthe Next Job Market(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2004)。
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1702427241 42.Shoshana Zuboff,In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988).
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1702427243 43.也叫“按件计酬”(piece-rate)、“散工制”(putting-out),在英国叫“家庭手工业”(cottage industries)、“工业化家庭作业”(industrial home work),在美国叫“佣金制”(commission system)。参阅Albrecht,“Industrial Home Work,”413–30。
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1702427245 44.Lauren Weber, “Some of the World’s Largest Employers No Longer Sell Things, They Rent Workers,”Wall Street Journal, December 28, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/some-of-the-worlds-largest-employers-no-longer-sell-things-they-rent-workers-1514479580.
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1702427247 45.Lauren Weber在“Some of the World’s Largest Employers No Longer Sell Things,They Rent Workers”中引用了标普全球市场情报的研究。外包公司提供的服务范围之广令人震惊。金巴斯集团(Compass Group)成立于1941年,战争期间在英国经营工厂食堂,最终扩展到企业餐饮领域。如今,该公司拥有超过55万名员工,Eurest Services是它的子公司。Eurest Services为客户供给人员和管理邮件室,为客户配备全职接待员,还负责建立会议室和准备仓库。它的客户包括谷歌、标普和辉瑞(Pfizer)。ISG(Information Services Group Inc.)的合伙人史蒂夫·霍尔(Steve Hall)说,随着算法承担更多的任务,外包公司的劳动力可能会减少。他表示:“大型外包商正在把分析和自动化结合起来,从而大幅减少对劳动力的需求。”
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1702427249 46.来自研究和咨询公司ISG。
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