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10．Joel West and Karim R. Lakhani, “Getting Clear about Communities in Open Innovation,”Industry and Innovation 15, no. 2 (2008): 223–31; Boudreau et al., “From Crowds to Collaborators: Initiating Effort & Catalyzing Interactions Among Online Creative Workers,”HBS Working Paper No. 14-060(Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School, January 2014).
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11．纳鲁拉指出：“自我组织不是偶然发生的……群体本身需要帮助和支持，方法就是建立某种层级系统，让更有经验的人担任更多管理角色，在这样的角色中，他们能够帮助他们，能够提供支持，能够代表社群直接与客户沟通。在这个组织里，我们就是这样的人。”普拉亚格·纳鲁拉，实地调查访谈，2015年12月11日。
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12．2012年，该组织正式从“Universal Subtitles”改名为“Amara”。他们用这个名字，是想在字幕之外提供其他服务，并希望体现它想要建立的社群感：一家具有社会使命的非营利组织，而不是典型的互联网创业公司。之所以选择“Amara”这个词，是因为它是西班牙语“amar”的动词形式，意思是“去爱”；而在梵文中，它的意思是“永恒的”。联合创始人迪安·詹森在接受我们采访时指出，Amara的“律师还担心与‘Universal Films / Studios’发生潜在的商标纠纷，因为他们很早前就进入了媒介空间”。
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13．Arun Sundararajan, The Sharing Economy: The End of Employment and the Rise of Crowd-Based Capitalism (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016); Airi Lampinen et al., “Studying the‘Sharing Economy’: Perspectives to Peer-to-Peer Exchange,”in Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference Companion on Computer Supported Cooperative Work& Social Computing (New York: ACM, 2015), 117–21, https://doi.org/10.1145/2685553.2699339; Juliet Schor, “Debating the Sharing Economy,”Great Transition Initiative, October 2014, http://www.greattransition.org/publication/debating-the-sharing-economy; Schor et al., “Paradoxes of Openness and Distinction in the Sharing Economy,”Poetics 54 (2016): 66–81.
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14．Kristofer Erickson and Inge Sørensen, “Regulating the Sharing Economy,”Internet Policy Review 5, no. 3 (June 30, 2016), https://doi.org/10.14763/2016.2.414; Juho Hamari, Mimmi Sjöklint, and Antti Ukkonen, “The Sharing Economy: Why People Participate in Collaborative Consumption,”Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 2015; Aaron Smith, Shared, Collaborative, and On Demand.
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15．“我们相信，新经济正在创造重塑工作的机会，但我们需要确保最终目标有利于工人的工作。”参阅National Domestic Workers Alliance，“The Good Work Code for the Online Economy Announces First 12 Companies Leading for Good for Workers，”press release，November 13，2015，via Marketwired，http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/good-work-code-online-economy-announces-first-12-companies-leading-good-work-workers-2073469.htm。
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16．Trebor Scholz, “Platform Cooperativism vs. the Sharing Economy,”Trebor Scholz (blog), December 5, 2014, https://medium.com/@trebors/platform-cooperativism-vs-the-sharing-economy-2ea737f1b5ad; Alex Wood, “Why the Digital Gig Economy Needs Co-Ops and Unions,”openDemocracy, September 15, 2016, https://www.opendemocracy.net/alex-wood/why-digital-gig-economy-needs-co-ops-and-unions;Chelsea Rustrum, “Q&A with Felix Weth of Fairmondo, the Platform Co-Op That’s Taking on eBay,”Shareable, accessed June 21, 2018, https://www.shareable.net/blog/qa-with-felix-weth-of-fairmondo-the-platform-co-op-thats-taking-on-ebay;Nithin Coca, “Nurses Join Forces with Labor Union to Launch Healthcare Platform Cooperative,”Shareable, accessed June 21, 2018, https://www.shareable.net/blog/nurses-join-forces-with-labor-union-to-launch-healthcare-platform-cooperative.
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17．U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses,”Occupational Outlook Handbook, accessed June 21, 2018, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/licensed-practical-and-licensed-vocational-nurses.htm.
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18．John Bellamy Foster, Robert W. McChesney, and R. Jamil Jonna, “The Global Reserve Army of Labor and the New Imperialism,”Monthly Review 63, no. 6 (2011): 1. See also Mark Graham, Isis Hjorth, and Vili Lehdonvirta, “Digital Labour and Development: Impacts of Global Digital Labour Platforms and the Gig Economy on Worker Livelihoods,”Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 23, no. 2 (2017): 135–62, https://doi.org/10.1177/1024258916687250.
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结论 接下来的任务
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1．参阅Siou Chew Kuek，Cecilia Paradi-Guilford，Toks Fayomi，Saori Imaizumi，Panos Ipeirotis，Patricia Pina，and Manpreet Singh，“The Global Opportunity in Online Outsourcing，”World Bank Group，June 2015；for related，in some cases more conservative，estimates，see Lawrence Mishel，Uber and the Labor Market，Washington，DC：Economic Policy Institute，2018，https://www.epi.org/publication/uber-and-the-labor-market-uber-drivers-compensation-wages-and-the-scale-of-uber-and-the-gig-economy/；James Manyika et al.，Independent Work：Choice，Necessity，and the Gig Economy（Washington，DC：McKinsey Global Institute：October 2016），http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/employment-and-growth/independent-work-choice-necessity-and-the-gig-economy；James Manyika et al.，Harnessing Automation for a Future That Works（Washington，DC：McKinsey Global Institute：January 2017），http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/digital-disruption/harnessing-automation-for-a-future-that-works；Till Alexander Leopold，Saadia Zahidi，and Vesselina Ratcheva，The Future of Jobs：Employment，Skills and Workforce Strategy for the Fourth Industrial Revolution，World Economic Forum，2016。
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2．根据Smith的Gig Work: Online Selling and Home Sharing (2016)，美国8%的成年人表示，2015年他们挣钱的方式包括在线任务（如调查和数据录入）、打车服务、购物/送货、保洁/洗衣等。Kidscount.org显示的人口普查资料估计，2016年美国成年人的数量为249 747 123。因此，在大约2.5亿成年人中，我们估计8%是2 000万。调查的误差幅度是2.4%，所以更保守的估计是2.5亿的5.6%，即1 400万。
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3．参考针对企业客户的新型按需服务，如Upwork Enterprise，Hubstaff，Outsourcely和PeoplePerHour。
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4．Manyika et al. Independent Work.
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5．预测理由如下：“总体而言，我们估计，在全球经济中，人们从事的有偿活动有50%可能通过采用当前的技术实现自动化。虽然只有不到5%的职业能够实现完全自动化，但30%的人类活动可以在2055年实现60%的自动化。”Manyika et al.，Harnessing Automation.
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6．Kingsley, Gray, and Suri. “Accounting for Market Frictions,”383–400.
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7．这两个ID是真实存在的，来自西达尔特的两个MTurk工人。
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8．David H. Autor, “Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation,”Journal of Economic Perspectives 29, no. 3 (Summer 2015): 3–30; Brynjolfsson and McAfee, The Second Machine Age.
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9．更多关于残疾人如何从事按需工作的细节，参阅Kathryn Zyskowski，Meredith Ringel Morris，Jeffrey P. Bigham，Mary L. Gray，and Shaun K. Kane，“Accessible Crowdwork？：Understanding the Value in and Challenge of Microtask Employment for People with Disabilities，”in CSCW ’15：Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & SocialComputing，1682–93（New York：ACM，2015），https://doi.org/10.1145/2675133.2675158。
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10．Melissa Valentine and Amy C. Edmondson, “Team Scaffolds: How Minimal In-Group Structures Support Fast-Paced Teaming,”Academy of Management Proceedings 2012, no. 1 (January 1, 2012): 1, https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2012.109; Dietmar Harhoff and Karim R. Lakhani, eds., Revolutionizing Innovation: Users, Communities, and Open Innovation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016).
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11．Coase, “Nature of the Firm,”386–405.
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12．Katz and Krueger, “Alternative Work Arrangements.”
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13．美国家庭佣工联盟网站，访问于2018年6月21日，https://www.domesticworkers.org/。
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14．Andy Stern and Lee Kravitz, Raising the Floor: How a Universal Basic Income Can Renew Our Economy and Rebuild the American Dream (New York: PublicAffairs, 2016); Alyssa Battistoni, “The False Promise of Universal Basic Income,”Dissent, Spring 2017, https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/false-promise-universal-basic-income-andy-stern-ruger-bregman; Rana Foroohar, “We’re About to Live in a World of Economic Hunger Games,”Time, July 19, 2016, http://time.com/4412410/andy-stern-universal-basic-income/; Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, trans. by Arthur Goldhammer, reprint (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2017).
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