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(80)Chrysostomos and Others v.Turkey,App.No.15299/89,68 Eur.Corn.H.R.Dec.&.Rep.216,242(Eur.Corn.H.R.1991).
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(81)See generally Merrills,The Development of International Law by the European court of Human Rights,18;Kay,“The European Convention on Human Rights and the Authority of Law,”218.
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(82)Polakiewicz and Jacob-Foltzer,“The European Human Rights Convention Domestic Law:The Impact of Strasbourg Case Law in States Where Direct Effect Is given to the Convention(pt.1),”66.
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(83)The State v.T Makwanyane and M Mchunu,Case No.CCT/3/94(South Africa 6 june 1995).
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(84)Ncube,Tshuma and Ndhlovu v.The State(1988)2 S.Afr.L.Rep.702(citing Tyrer v.United Kingdom,26 Eur.Ct.H.R.(ser.A)(1978),2 Eur.Hum.Rts.Rep.I(1979-80);Juvenile v.The State,Judgment No.64/89,Crim.App.No.156/88(citing Tyrer and Campbell and Cosans v.United Kingdom),48 Eur,Ct.H.R.(ser.A)(1982),4 Eur.Hum.Rts.Rep.293(1982).See Hannum,“Recent Case,”768.
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(85)H.C.5100/94,Public Committee Against Torture in Israel v.The State of Israel(6 Sept.1999),38 International Legal Materials,1471(quoting Ireland v.United Kingdom 2 Eur.Hum.Rts.Rep.25 ,18).
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(86)Pratt & Morgan v.The Attorney General for Jamaica,Privy Council Appeal No,10,2 Nov.1993,reprinted in 14 Hum.Rts.L.J.338(1993).如果要看案件的讨论,参见Buergenthal,“International Tribunals and National Courts:The Internationalization of Domestic Adjudication,”689-691.The Soering decision,ECHR,Judgment of 7 July 1989,11 Hum.Rts.L.J.335(1990).在这一案件中,英国法院发现将拘留在英国的一名犯人引渡到美国的一个州,将使他面临死刑,这违反了欧洲人权公约第三款。见Jarmul,“Effects of Decisions of Regional Human Rights Tribunals on National Courts,”281-283。
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(87)Merrills,Development of International Law,19.
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(88)Attanasio,“Rapporteur’s Overview and Conclusions:of Sovereignty,Globalization,and Courts,”383.欧洲之外的超国家人权法院也开始在各国法庭中发展追随者,但是大多进展缓慢。在1992年,阿根廷最高法院推翻了一项低级法院的裁决,该裁决援引了美洲国家人权法院的意见。Ekmekdijan v.Sofovich(1992-III)J.A.199(1992)(原告声称他被非法剥夺了向一个电视节目做回复的权利,该节目被指控道德败坏,对其本人造成损害。)对这个案件的讨论,见Jarmul,“Effects of Decisions,”258-59。
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(89)南非宪法第39节要求南非法庭(在裁决时)要考虑到国际法(条款)。在中东欧新民主国家中,许多新开创的或者重新修订过的宪法也将国际法容纳到国内法律之中。Vereschetin,“The Relationship between International Law and National Law,”40-41.澳大利亚最高法院大法官M.D.Kirby也说,在许多普通法国家,许多国内法庭也习以为常地援引自己国家所签署的国际条约作为法源。Kirby,“The Role of the Judge in Advancing Human Rights by Reference to International Human Rights Norms,”515. 但我们要看到,这些宪法中规定的要求并不是要国内法庭以外国法庭的裁决为准。国内法庭也能自己对相关国际条约进行解释。Kirby注意到,普通法法庭对国际条约的援引最近在政治上备受争议,但是“围绕着这些条约发展出来的判例正在日益增多”,这使得法官和律师很难忽视之。Kirby,“The Role of the Judge,”515.
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(90)Benvenisti,“The Influence of International Human Rights Law on the Israeli Legal System:Present and Future,”147-148,151.
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(91)Buergenthal,“International Tribunals and National Courts,”700;Kirby,“The Role of the Judge,”515.
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(92)Smith,“The Supreme Court,”96,133.
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(93)Ibid.,133-134.
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(94)Ibid.,134.
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(95)对欧盟司法体系建立过程的描述(这一过程通常被称为罗马条约的宪政化过程),见Stein,“Lawyers,Judges,and the Making of a Transnational Constitution,”I;Weiler,“The Transformation of Europe,”2403;and Bebr,Development of judicial Control of The European Communities.对欧盟法官们的描述,见Everling,“The Member States of the European Community before their Court of Justice,”215;Mancini,“The Making of a Constitution for Europe,”595;and Koopmans,“The Birth of European Law at the Crossroads of Legal Traditions,”493。
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(96)See Case 26/62,N.V.Algemene Transp.& Expeditie OndernemingVan Gend & Loos v.Nederlandse administratie der belastingen,1963 E.C.R.1,12(Ct.of Justice of the Eur Comm.1962)(该标志性裁决允许一名荷兰进口商利用罗马条约共同市场条款之一来反对荷兰政府的政策);Case 6/64,Flamimo Costa v.ENEL(Ente Nazionale Energia Eletttica)1964 E.C.R.588(认准如果有一项条约内容同国内法律发生冲突,那么以条约为准)。对直接有效判例的讨论,见George Bermann et al.,European Community Law。
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(97)这个观点并不是毫无争议的。一些政治学家认为,尽管有些国家的政府对欧洲法院持反对意见,该国法院实际上却还是遵从着政府本来的意愿。这种说法的基础是,1959年,所有的欧共体成员国都同意经济融合符合它们的最大利益,它们也明白,需要一项机制来对彼此进行约束,使之遵守条约中规定的义务。因此它们建立了一个法院来使大家守信。见Garrett,“International Cooperation and Institutional Choice:The European Community’s Internal Market,”533;Garrett and Weingast,“Ideas,Interests and Institutions:Constructing the EC’s Internal Market,”173;Garrett,Kelemen,and Schuiz,“The European Court of Justice,National Governments,and Legal Integration in the European Union,”149。 这种说法忽略了欧共体成员国的明显意图,它们是想建立一个其裁决能够轻易被阻止或绕过的法院。这种说法同前面谈到的真实发生的历史之间有相当差距。对此问题的争论见Mattli and Slaughter,“Law and Politics in the European Union:A Reply to Garrett,”183;Garrett,“The Politics of Legal Integration in the European Union,”171。
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(98)Alter,Establishing the Supremacy of European Law:The Making of an international Rule of Law in Europe,80-87;idem,“Who Are the ‘Masters of the Treaty’?:European Governments and the European Court of Justice,”121.
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(99)See Ploetner,“Report on France;The Reception of the Direct Effect and Supremacy Doctrine by the French Supreme Courts,”41-75;and Alter,Establishing the Supremacy,145-157,173(both discussing the Cour de Cassation’s decision in the 1975 case,Administration des Douanes v.Societe Cafes Jacques Vabre and J.Weigel et Compagnie S.a.r.L.,(Cour de Cassation,France 1975)2 Common Mrkt.L.Rep.343(1975).
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(100)Secretary of State for Transport,ex parte.Factortame Ltd.Case 213/89,R.V.(U.K.1989)3 Common Market L.R.867(1990)(欧洲法院初步裁决英国法庭可以给予申请者以临时法律救济,把禁止这样做的英国法令搁置一边)R.v.Secretary of State for Transport,ex p.Factortame Ltd.No.2,I A.C.603(U.K.House of Lords 1991)(上议院决议赞成这些临时法律救济)。上议院的决定认为法庭有义务将欧盟法律置于国家法律之先,这明显是对议会主权的冲击。这些裁决的全貌及其意义,见Craig,“Report on the United Kingdom,”200-203。
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(101)认识到国家法官如此行事的动机是想得到司法授权,Joseph Weiler是第一人。他似乎是指,法院对国家法律进行司法重审,使之符合欧洲法律。Weiler,“The Transformation of Europe”,2426;see also Burley and Mattli,“Europe Before the Court:A Political Theory of Legal Integration,”63-64.
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(102)Karen Alter已经就这个话题写出了许多重要文章,有一本书也即将出版。见Alter,Establishing the Supremacy,45-52;idem,“Explaining National Court Acceptance of European Court Jurisprudence:A Critical Evaluation of Theories of Legal Integration,”227-252.
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(103)Mattli &.Slaughter,“Law and Politics in the European Union.”
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(104)Ploetner,“Reports on France,”61.(他认为法国最高法院之所以接受欧盟法律的至上地位,是因为不想使法国商人处于不利地位,而法国商人是其主要的支持者(prime constituency)。)
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