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[260]Walter Sinnott-Armstrong,“Framing Moral Intuitions”,in Sinnott-Armstrong,ed.,2008,Volume 2,pp.47—76,pp.50—51。类似的观点,参见Joshua D. Greene,“The Secret Joke of Kant’s Soul”,in Ibid,Volume 3,pp.35—80,p.67;Greene,“From Neural ‘Is’ to Moral ‘Ought’: What are the Moral Implications of Neuroscientific Moral Psychology?” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4(2003),pp.848—850。值得注意的是,现在的情感主义者常常在面对描述性道德心理学的时候,带上的是休谟主义的面具。而当问题变成了这种描述性心理学对道德的规范权威性论证时,就都变成了尼采主义的普遍道德的揭露和批判者,比如,Prinz,2007。
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[261]最初且最有名的研究是J. D. Greene,R. B. Somerville,L. E. Nystrom,J. M. Darley,J. D. Cohen. “An fMRI Study of Emotional Engagement in Moral Judgment”,Science 293(2001),pp.2105—2108。
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[262]例见M. Koenigs,L. Young,R. Adolphs,D. Tranel,F. Cushman,M. Hanser and A. Damasio,“Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex Increases Utilitarian Moral Judgments”,Nature 446(2007),pp.908—911。
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[263]Shaun Nichols and Joshua Knobe,“Moral Responsibility and Determinism: The Cognitive Science of Folk Intuitions”,in Knobe and Nichols,eds.,2008,pp.105—128。
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[264]Greene(2008、2006)得出了类似的结论。
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[265]参见Mark Timmons,“Toward a Sentimentalist Deontology”,in Sinnott-Armstron,ed.,2008,Volume 3,pp.93—104。Nichols and Knobe,2008,也提出了一个“情感能力模式”(affective competence model)在这个模式中一个判断的情感来源并不能证明其无用或错误。另一个情感主义对义务论的辩护,参见Slote,2007,ch. 3,pp.42—54。
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[266]对“情感操纵”的恐惧确实是广泛存在的,参见Brader,2006,pp.35—38。
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[267]参见Jürgen Habermas,The Theory of Communicative Action Volume I: Reason and the Rationalization of Society. Translated by Thomas McCarthy. Boston: Beacon Press,1981,p.295;强调部分为原文所加。
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[268]Danielle S. Allen,Talking to Strangers: Anxieties of Citizenship Since Brown v. Board of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,2004,p.55.
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[269]Habermas,Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Translated by Christian Lernhardt and Sherry Weber Nicholson. Cambridge: MIT Press,1996,p.202,182。这些哈贝马斯理论中关于在审议中,认知和感情元素的引言来自Krause,“Desiring Justice: Motivation and Justification in Rawls and Habermas”,Contemporary Political Theory 4(2005),pp.363–85,especially pp.374—377。也参见Krause,2008,pp.37—47。
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[270]参见Mark E. Warren,“The Self in Discursive Democracy”,in Stephen K. White,ed.,The Cambridge Companion to Habermas. New York: Cambridge University Press,1995,pp.167—200,p.181。
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[271]任何关于民主审议的论文集,都给这样的立场提供了大量证据,大部分今天的审议民主支持者都持这样的观点。《民主与差异》一书的编者塞拉·本哈比就表达了其赞许之词,谈到合适的审议制度保护了决策过程不受感情偏私性影响(p.72)。约书亚·科恩则坚持认为只有在理性的论证广泛流行的时候审议才可能存在(p.100)。艾丽斯·扬批评托马斯·斯普拉根斯,认为合适的审议必须“不被非理性玷污”(p.130)。参见Seyla Benhabib,ed.,Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political. Princeton,N.J.: Princeton University Press,1996。
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[272]Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson,Why Deliberative Democracy? Princeton,N.J.: Princeton University Press,2004,pp.50—51.
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[273]John S. Dryzek,Deliberative Democracy and Beyond: Liberals,Critics,Contestations. New York: Oxford University Press,2000,especially pp.52—53,p.167.
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[274]Allen,2004,especially pp.58—59,pp.140—160。另一个亚里斯多德主义的对修辞的辩护,参见Bryan Garsten,Saving Persuasion: A Defense of Rhetoric and Judgment. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press,2006。
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[275]一个值得一提的例外,参见Krause,2008,especially pp.142—174.
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[276]利奇曼在《道德哲学的系统》的前言中回忆道,哈奇森自己的教育学也有这个独特的情感主义目的;他“将对心灵的培养作为所有道德教育的核心”(SMP,Preface,vol. 1,p.xxxi)。
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[277]Davis,1996,pp.80—81.
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[278]Batson,1991,pp.218—220;Hoffman,2001,pp.287—298.
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[279]Martha C. Nussbaum,Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press,1997,especially pp.85—112.
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[280]对这样认识的陈述,参见Stephen Macedo,Liberal Virtues: Citizenship,Virtue and Community in Liberal Constitutionalism. Oxford: Clarendon,1990。
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