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[102]Ibid.，p.29.
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[103]Brendan Kelly，“China’s Challenge to the International Monetary System”，p.23；Cohen，“The Yuan Tomorrow?Evaluating China’s Currency Intemationalization Strategy”，p.9；Masahiro Kawai and Shinji Takagi，“The Renminbi as a Key International Currency?Lessons from the Japanese Experience”，paper presented to the Asia Europe Economic Forum, Paris，10-11 January 2011，p.6.
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[104]Barry Eichengreen，“The Renminbi Challenge”，Project Syndicate，9 October 2012，http：//www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/can-china-have-an-international-reserve-currency-by-barry-eichengreen#hhieTSc2jk1PsR35.99.
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[105]Keiko Yoshioka，“Yi Gang：Japan, China stand to gain strategic benefits from bilateral currency cooperation”，The Asahi Shimbun，21 August 2012.
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[106]Rudolf Richter，“European Monetary Union：Initial Situation, Alternatives, Prospects in the Light of Modern Institutional Economics”，University of Saarland Economic Series, no.9908，May 1999，http：//www.wiwi.uni-saarland.de/economics-wp/pdf/wp9908.pdf.
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[107]现在IMF有188个成员，其中许多成员都共用同一种货币，主要的有欧元、东加勒比元以及CFA法郎。由于IMF不再公布各成员之间的汇率表，笔者在此查看了IMF的国际金融数据库。那些自身货币兑美元始终固定在官定汇率、兑美元汇率波动很小或兑美元长期呈现单向波动（例如通过缓慢升值来抵消通货膨胀影响）的国家被视为采取了盯住美元的制度。
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[108]Richard Dobbs et al.，“An exorbitant privilege?Implications of reserve currencies for competitiveness”，Discussion Paper, McKinsey Global Institute, December 2009.MGI has suggested a figure of between 30 and 200 basis points, but even the lower figure strikes me as high.
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[109]Philipp Hartmann, Currency Competition and Foreign Exchange Markets：The Dollar, the Yen, and the Euro.Cambridge：Cambridge University Press，1998.
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[110]Bank for International Settlements, Triennial Central Bank Survey：“Foreign exchange turnover in April 2013：preliminary global results”：September 2013，Table 2，p.10.
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[111]Benjamin J.Cohen, The Future of Money.Princeton, NJ：Princeton University Press，2004.
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[112]Arvind Subramanian, Eclipse：Living in the Shadow of China’s Economic Dominance Washington DC：Peterson Institute for International Economics，2011.
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[113]Barry Eichengreen，“The Dollar Dilemma：The World’s Top Currency Faces Competition”，Foreign Affairs, vol.88，no.5，September/October 2009，pp.53-68.
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1703683404
[114]John Williamson，“Why SDRs Could Rival the Dollar”，Policy Brief，9-20，Peterson Institute for International Economics, September 2009.
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1703683406
[115]Dobbs et al.，“An exorbitant privilege?Implications of reserve currencies for competitiveness”，Discussion Paper, McKinsey Global Institute, December 2009.
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1703683408
[116]IISS, Strategic Survey 2012：The Annual Review of World Affairs.Abingdon：Routledge for the IISS，2012，p.66.
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[117]See Brendan Taylor, Sanctions As Grand Strategy, Adelphi 411.Abingdon：Ro utledge for IISS，2009，for an overview of these debates.
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[118]Gary Clyde Hufbauer et al.，Economic Sanctions Reconsidered, Washington DC：United Book Press for Peterson Institute for Inter national Economics，2007，p.159.Sanctions were defined a success if they made“a modest contribution to a goal that was partly realized, often at some political cost to the sender country”.
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[119]David Cortright and George A.Lopez（eds），Smart Sanctions：Targeting Economic Statecraft.Lanham, MD：Rowman＆Littlefield Publishers，2002.
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[120]2011年12月31日通过的《2012年国防授权法案》首次将金融制裁正式化。随后的《伊朗威胁消除法》和《叙利亚人权法案》又强化了这种授权。随后2013年1月，《2013年国防授权法案》的D部分，即《伊朗自由和防扩散法案》，又将之扩大到更广泛的经济活动。欧盟也在2012年2月、3月和10月宣布对伊朗实施金融制裁。
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[121]德国和日本都无意让其货币发挥储备货币的作用，其担忧主要是由于货币供应增多所引发的通货膨胀风险。
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[122]Craig Karmin, Biography of the Dollar：How the Mighty Buck Conquered the World and Why It’s Under Siege.New York：Crown Publishing Group，2008，p.100.
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[123]Financial Network Analytics, Tutorial 9，“Analyzing Cross-Border Banking Exposures”，2010，Quarter 2，http：//www.fna.fi/demos/files/tutorial9_full.html?transitionTime=500.The darkness and width of links indicate the degree of bilateral exposure, while the size of the node reflects a country’s total exposure.
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[124]在2012年3月至2013年6月的数轮制裁豁免中，若干欧盟国家（比利时、捷克、法国、德国、希腊、意大利、荷兰、波兰、西班牙和英国）、日本、印度、韩国、土耳其、南非、马来西亚、斯里兰卡、中国和新加坡都获得了豁免。
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[125]These were passed through European Council Regulation no.267/2012 in February 2012 and augmented in March 2012 by European Council Decision 2012/152/CFSP.
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[126]Kenneth Katzman，“Iran Sanctions”，Congressional Research Service Report RS20871，26 July 2013，p.20.
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