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3.Clark, Farewell to films.
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4.Piketty, Capital.
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5.Cowen, Average Is Over.
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6.Allen, “Engels’ Pause.”
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7.Piketty, Capital.
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8.I build on the work of other scholars who have pioneered the subject of technical knowledge.Three of the most important economic historians to do so are Nathan Rosenberg, Joel Mokyr, and Paul David.See David, Technical Choice; Mokyr, Gifts of Athena; Mokyr, Enlightened Economy; and Rosenberg, Black Box.Management literature studies the role of knowledge in the firm; see Foray, Economics of Knowledge.Learning by doing has been seen to play a role in the economic theory of growth; see Arrow, “Economic Implications,” and Jovanovic, “Learning and Growth.” David Warsh tells the story of knowledge in economic growth theory; see Warsh, Knowledge.
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9.Some economists use the term “learning by doing” in a narrow sense to connote a very specific situation where a new plant will reduce its cost of production as its cumulative output grows.As I will discuss, this plant-level effect often involves workers and managers learning through experience, but it might involve other things as well.When I use the term “learning by doing,” I connote the much broader and original notion of the term, which includes “learning by using” (Rosenberg) and a significant swath of “user innovation” (von Hippel).
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第一章 创新？之后才更重要！
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1.Larcom, New England Girlhood.
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2.Appleton, Introduction of the Power Loom.
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3.Dublin, Women at Work.
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4.Montgomery, Practical Detail.
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5.Zevin, “Growth of Cotton Textile Production.”
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6.This is not true of all technologies.For example, penicillin and small molecule pharmaceuticals often deliver most of their benefit soon after the initial commercialization.Delayed benefits are a feature of technologies where sequential innovation is important, as discussed in Chapter 3.
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7.Rosenberg, “Technological Interdependence”; Hollander, Sources of Increased Efficiency; Nuvolari, “Collective Invention.”
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8.This quip is from Gavin Wright, “Foundations,” paraphrasing the line in the 1954 film version of The Caine Mutiny: “The first thing you’ve got to learn about this ship is that she was designed by geniuses to be run by idiots.”
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9.Mokyr, Gifts of Athena.
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10.Mokyr, Enlightened Economy; Landes, Unbound Prometheus; Allen, British Industrial Revolution.
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11.Mokyr, Enlightened Economy, p.110.
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12.Meisenzahl and Mokyr, “Rate and Direction.”
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13.Wadsworth and Mann, Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire.
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14.MacLeod, Inventing the Industrial Revolution, pp..202–204.
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15.MacLeod, “James Watt.”
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16.Von Tunzfilmann, Steam Power.
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17.To cite two instances, the Smithsonian Institution celebrates heroic inventors at the Lemelson Hall of Invention, commemorating the leading patent troll of the twentieth century who donated the funding; the National Inventors Hall of Fame is hosted by the U.S.Patent and Trademark O.ce and only includes inventors who secured patents, excluding, for example, Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web.
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