1704380309 1.Students only needed to determine the atomic number of an element to determine its place in the periodic table, and from this they could infer chemical properties.For example, the rightmost column contains noble gases that are inert.The next to last column contains halogens that are highly reactive; they will combine with hydrogen to firm acids.

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1704380311 2.For example, Justus von Liebig’s laboratory in Giessen had a dozen students early on.See Haber, Chemical Industry, p.71.

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1704380313 3.Bensaude-Vincent, History of Chemistry.

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1704380315 4.Moser, “Do Patents Weaken the Localization of Innovations?”

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1704380317 5.Since the 1980s, economists have studied various aspects of technical standards, focusing mainly on compatibility standards, or those standards that allow different components of a system to work together, such as hardware and software.Compatibility standards give rise to interesting problems such as competition between standards and problems of “lock-in” to a given standard.But technical standards are only one way that technical knowledge is standardized, and these compatibility issues are only part of the role that technical standards play.For a review of this literature, see David and Greenstein, “Economics of Compatibility Standards,” and Blind, Economics of Standards.

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1704380319 6.Dominique Foray defines codification as “expressed in a particular language and recorded on a particular medium” (Foray, Economics of Knowledge,p.74).Foray reviews the literature on codification.Language puts knowledge in a standardized firm that can be more readily understood by someone who reads that language.But standardized knowledge is not necessarily codified; a tacit skill can be limited to apply to a certain range of conditions, thus becoming standardized to a degree.For instance, surgeons are certified in certain standard techniques that are tacit knowledge learned through experience.Codification is often most beneficial when it is combined with other sorts of standardization.Thus, although chemical experiments were all documented (codified) before Mendeleev, the experimental knowledge became much easier to learn when essential findings were simplified in the firm of the periodic table.Such simplification can make the knowledge easier to acquire.Although it’s not necessary, codification facilitates the ease with which knowledge can be standardized, and it magnifies the ease of communicating standardized knowledge.

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1704380321 7.The notion of dominant designs is developed in Utterback and Abernathy, “Dynamic Model”; Utterback, Mastering the Dynamics; and Suárez and Utterback, “Dominant Designs.” On QWERTY, see David, “Clio.”

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1704380323 8.Nelson and Winter, Evolutionary Theory.

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1704380325 9.See a review of this literature in Besen and Farrell, “Choosing How to Compete.”

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1704380327 10.Raymond Vernon first developed evidence that firms do not export a technology until it has matured and is relatively standardized.See Vernon, “International Investment.” A significant body of subsequent research finds supporting evidence.The cost of transferring technologies overseas decreases with their age.David Teece, “Technology Transfer,” documents that the cost of transferring mechanical technologies overseas by multinational firms decreases substantially with the age of the technology.For chemical and petroleum refining plants, he finds that the age relationship is weaker, but the cost decreases with the novelty of the technology.Also, early-stage industries and patenting activity with new technologies tend to be geographically localized.Conversely, older industries and technologies tend to be more geographically dispersed.Using patent citations as a proxy for knowledge spill overs, Ja.e, Trajtenberg, and Henderson, “Geographic Localization,” find that the localization of knowledge decreases with the age of a technology.Audretsch and Feldman, “R&D Spillovers,” find that early-stage industries tend to be more highly localized, and Desmet and Rossi-Hansberg, “Spatial Growth,” find that older manufacturing technologies are less localized.And Petra Moser, “Do Patents Weaken…?,” finds greater geographical dispersion of patenting after the periodic table.Note, however, that these differences are a matter of the degree of standardization.AnnaLee Saxenian, New Argonauts, finds that the export of semiconductor manufacturing processes to Taiwan also involved the export of experienced engineers who brought with them much knowledge that was not standardized.

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1704380329 11.John Marko., “Battles Loom for Control of TV’s Portal to Cable,” New York Times, April 3, 1993.

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1704380331 12.Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma.

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1704380333 13.Edmund L.Andrews, “Technology; Time Warner’s Ordinary People Plug Interactive TV,” New York Times, December 18, 1994.

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1704380335 14.“A Talk with Miss Margaret Kelly, Director of the U.S.Mint,” New York Times, August 6, 1911.

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1704380337 15.Almost all female stenographers were also typists.See Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper.

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1704380339 16.Ker, G.K.Chesterton, p.392.

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1704380341 17.Costa, “From Mill Town to Board Room.”

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1704380343 18.Rockwell, Shorthand Instruction and Practice.

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1704380345 19.National Stenographer, “The New Hammond,” p..319.

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1704380347 20.David, “Clio.”

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1704380349 21.Data are from Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business.

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1704380351 22.Some manufacturers continued to produce alternative keyboard layouts into the 1920s.See the Hammond Multiplex in The Virtual Typewriter Museum, http://www.typewritermuseum.org/index.html.During the 1930s, the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard was introduced, claiming superior performance.

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1704380353 23.Suárez and Utterback, “Dominant Designs.”

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1704380355 24.See Temin, Iron and Steel.This standard was developed largely by Alexander Holley.The plant design included, among other things, an arrangement where pairs of Bessemer converters were situated next to each other (they were on each side of a pit in the original Bessemer plants), and the converters were elevated so that molten metal could be poured at ground level rather than in a pit.Holley also devised a method for quickly replacing the refractory bottom of the converter, returning the equipment to production much faster.Almost all of the Bessemer plants in the United States in 1880 used Holley’s design.His refractory bottom was developed in 1869–1870 and patented in 1872.

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1704380357 25.Formally,there is an option value to waiting.See, for example, Bessen, “Waiting for Technology.”

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