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1704380399 12.Brynjolfsson and McAfee, Second Machine Age.

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1704380401 13.Employee compensation does not include proprietor’s income or indirect taxesless subsidies, income that accrues at least partially to labor.Using slightly different measures that account for these sources, the trend still declines after 1980.See Jacobson and Occhino, “Behind the Decline.”

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1704380403 14.Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-first Century, pp..200–201.

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1704380405 15.Stiglitz, Price of Inequality.

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1704380407 16.Karabarbounis and Neiman (“Global Decline”) compare trends across countries and find the declines are associated with lower equipment prices, driven by information technology.See also Yglesias, “Workers Are Losing Out Globally.” For another explanation, see Lynn and Longman, “Who Broke America’s Job Machine?”

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1704380409 17.Bronfenbrenner (“Note on Relative Shares”) outlines a simple production function model where the constancy of income shares depends on an elasticity of substitution between labor and capital of about one, although he shows that income shares might not be too sensitive to this parameter.In his model, there is not technical change, but the capital labor ratio increases.Solow (“Contribution”) provides a growth model with technical change that is assumed to be purely labor augmenting.In this model, the capital labor ratio grows indefinitely so that constancy of income shares depends again on the elasticity of substitution being just right.A large series of other growth models provide similar results with similar assumptions.Note also that these models ignore international trade and the possible existence of subsistence workers elsewhere in the world.Empirical studies of engineering production functions find a wide range of elasticities and departures from labor-augmenting change.See the discussion in Bessen, “More Machines.”

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1704380411 18.The elasticity of substitution is a parameter characterizing the production function and is “high” or “low” depending on whether it is greater than or less than one, respectively.In some cases, a decrease in the relative price of capital goods only generates a small increase in capital per worker, implying a low elasticity of substitution.In this case, labor’s share of income will tend to grow as more capital is accumulated per worker.On the other hand, when the elasticity of substitution is high, a small decrease in the relative price of capital goods generates a lot more investment and a declining labor share.Estimation of the elasticity of substitution depends on assumptions about technical change.Using careful measures and estimating techniques, Berndt (“Reconciling Alternative Estimates”) found an elasticity of substitution of about one between capital and labor when he estimated a constant elasticity of substitution (CES) production function under assumed Hicks neutral technical change.But estimates using translog production functions, which allow variable elasticities of substitution, typically reject the Cobb-Douglas restrictions (see, for example, Berndt and Christensen, “Translog Function,” or Griffin and Gregory, “Intercountry Translog Model”).And estimates that assume a constant elasticity of substitution but allow factor-augmenting technical change also reject the Cobb-Douglas firm, finding elasticities of substitution between capital and labor well below one (David and Van de Klundert, “Biased Efficiency Growth,” and Antras, “Is the U.S.Aggregate Production Function Cobb-Douglas?”).

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1704380413 19.Goldin and Katz, Race between Education and Technology.Note that Goldin and Katz also hold that the early factories, despite having much more capital per worker than small manufacturing workshops, required fewer skilled workers; that is, the factory was de-skilling.

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1704380415 20.See for example Lucas, “Mechanics of Economic Development,” and Jovanovic, “Vintage Capital and In equality.”

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1704380417 21.Part of this premium may be due to a selection effect.That is, employers may pay more once they learn which employees are best able to handle technology productively.Nevertheless, that pay premium represents learning about technical skills.

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1704380419 22.Abowd, Lengfirmann, and McKinney, “Measurement of Human Capital.”

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1704380421 23.Lewis, Unionism and Relative Wages; Lewis, Union Relative Wage Effects.For a more recent update, see Blanch flower and Bryson, “Union Wage Premium.”

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1704380423 24.Jardini, “From Iron to Steel”; Nuwer, “From Batch to Flow.”

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1704380425 25.Jardini, “From Iron to Steel,” pp..293–294; Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor,pp.30–31.Jardini notes that Bessemer workers earned more than wrought-iron workers despite both being represented by the same union.Montgomery notes that steel unions did not have consistent successes.By 1885, all but three of fifteen steel rolling mills required nonunion oaths by their workers.And as Jardini notes, the unions of Carnegie Steel faced disastrous setbacks at the Duquesne Works in 1890 and the Homestead Works in 1892.Bessemer workers earned relatively high wages nevertheless.

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1704380427 26.Becker, Human Capital.

1704380428

1704380429 第六章　织工们是怎样提高待遇的？

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1704380431 1.Robinson, Loom and Spindle.

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1704380433 2.Dublin, Women at Work, pp.99–100.

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1704380435 3.Dublin (Women at Work, p..101) finds some evidence that the strike brought benefits to some workers.

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1704380437 4.Allen, “Engels’ Pause.”

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1704380439 5.Engels, Condition of the Working Class, pp..25–26.

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1704380441 6.The formal notion in economics that aggregate income inequality first rises with economic development and then falls is called the “Kuznets Curve” and is attributed to Simon Kuznets (“Economic Growth and Income Inequality”).Economists have measured these trends (see, for example, Williamson, Did British Capitalism Breed Inequality?).Much of this analysis has been at a macro level, however, and therefore involves broader changes than those I analyze here, including the shifting composition of occupations and changing tax structures.See,for example, Acemoglu and Robinson, “Why Did the West Extend the Franchise?”

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1704380443 7.Wages during the Civil War might not have been representative of peacetime wages.

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1704380445 8.Layer, Earnings of Cotton Mill Operatives.

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1704380447 9.The unskilled male wage only grew 6 percent from 1830 to 1900, after adjusting for inflation (David and Solar, “Bicentenary Contribution”).

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