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29.For example, Edwin Mansfield, “Technical Change,” studied twelve innovations and only one of them was adopted by most of the firms in less than a decade.
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30.See Bessen and Nuvolari, “Di.using New Technology.”
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31.Darby and Zucker, “Change or Die”; Darby, Zucker, and Welch, “Going Public”; Zucker, Darby, and Armstrong, “Geographically Localized Knowledge”; Zucker, Darby, and Armstrong, “Commercializing Knowledge”; Zucker, Darby, and Brewer, “Intellectual Human Capital.”
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32.Darby,Zucker, and Wang, “Joint Ventures”; Lach and Schankerman, “Royalty Sharing.”
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33.Parker and Grimm, “Recognition.”
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34.Von Hippel, Democratic Innovation.
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35.Mokyr, British Industrial Revolution, p..43; Bessen and Meurer, Patent Failure, pp..77–81.Some, such as Samuel Crompton, did not obtain patents.Others, such as Edmund Cartwright and Richard Roberts, inventor of a successful automatic spinning machine, did not pro.t from their patents.Some others, such as John Kay, inventor of the “.ying shuttle” for weaving, lost money thanks to ruinous litigation trying to enforce their patents.And just a few, like James Watt, made out well.
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36.Moser, “How Do Patent Laws Influence Innovation?”
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37.MacLeod, Inventing the Industrial Revolution.
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38.Cohen et al., “Industry and the Academy.”
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39.Saxenian, Regional Advantage.
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40.Saxenian, Regional Advantage, pp..2–3.
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41.Gilson, “Legal Infrastructure”; Hyde, “High Velocity Labor Market.”
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42.Marx, Strumsky, and Fleming, “Mobility, Skills, and the Michigan Non-Compete Experiment”; Fallick, Fleischman, and Rebitzer, “Job-Hopping in Silicon Valley”; Garmaise, “Ties That Truly Bind”; Samila and Sorenson “Noncompete Covenants”; Lobel, Talent.
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43.Noncompete agreements may have their most important impacts on investments in knowledge and on knowledge sharing but they also have other effects, including the disclosure of trade secrets to employees and the effect of labor mobility on the functioning of labor markets—in particular, on matching heterogeneous employers and employees.
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44.Garmaise, “Ties That Truly Bind.”
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45.Png, “Trade Secrets.”
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46.These states have confirmed their trade secret statutes with the Uniform Trade Secrets Act.See Samuels and Johnson, “Uniform Trade Secrets Act.” As of this writing, the Uniform Trade Secrets Act has been adopted in most states.
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47.Png, “Law and Innovation”; Png and Samila, “Trade Secrets Law.”
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48.Other policy changes affecting employee incentives include changes in the assignment of employee rights to inventions unrelated to work and federal criminal prosecution of trade secrecy violations.See Lobel, “New Cognitive Property.” Health insurance policy also affects job mobility and employee incentives.Studies show that the lack of portable health insurance has created “job lock,” reducing the willingness of talented people to change jobs or start new companies.See Gruber and Madrian, “Health Insurance and Job Mobility”; Fairlie, Kapur, and Gates, “Is Employer-Based Health Insurance a Barrier to Entrepreneurship?”
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49.Marx, “Form Strikes Back.”
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50.Steven Greenhouse, “Noncompete Clauses Increasingly Pop Up in Array of Jobs,” New York Times, June 8, 2014.
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51.Russell Beck, “Trade Secret and Noncompete Survey—National Case Graph 2014 [Preliminary Data], January 7, 2014, http://faircompetitionlaw.com/2014/01/07/trade-secret-and-noncompete-survey-national-case-graph-2014-preliminary-data/.
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52.Fisk, Working Knowledge.
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53.Moscarini and Thomsson, “Occupational and Job Mobility.” The authors note several other factors that might contribute to declining job mobility, including a reduction in the number of viable occupations due to outsourcing and perceived uncertainty in the labor market.Another possible factor might be the aging of the workforce.However, they argue that this factor cannot explain the decline since the mid-1990s.
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