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图4.8 不同年限企业的退出率
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资料来源:转引自P. Aghion, A. Bergeaud, T. Boppart and S. Bunel,“Firm Dynamics and Growth Measurement in France,”Journal of the European Economic Association16, no. 4(2018)
:933 -956,图8。
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近期有项研究告诫我们,此类补贴有负面效应,可能挫伤效率较高的新企业的进入。[32]对现有企业提供补贴会增加对技能劳动力的需求,提高其成本,而成本攀升会削弱潜在进入者的预期利润,打击它们进入市场的决心。
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这一再配置效应得到了更近期一项研究的印证,该研究分析了欧洲中央银行于2012年2月实施的欧元体系附加信贷申请计划(Eurosystem’s Additional Credit Claims, ACC)如何影响法国企业的活力。[33]时任欧洲央行行长马里奥·德拉吉创立该计划的目的是防止2008—2009年金融危机后的欧元区衰退,其基本设想如下:在欧元区,各银行可以用高质量的企业贷款作为抵押,从欧洲央行获得再融资;这些贷款将使银行获得更多的流动性;偿还贷款可能性最大的企业获得的评级为1,之后随着偿还贷款概率逐渐降低,评级依次降为2~5,接近破产的企业则评级为P;在2012年2月前,各商业银行只能以评级为4以上的企业贷款作为向欧洲央行再融资的抵押品;后来,该计划又把范围延伸到了评级为4的企业。
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上述计划实施后的情形如何?第一个后果是,评级为4的企业获得的贷款,相对于评级更差的企业(特别是评级在5以下的企业)有所增加。第二个后果是,评级为4的企业的生产率增速提升,或者说,放松这些企业的贷款约束让它们得以扩大投资,特别是用于创新的投资。然而这一正面效应被再配置效应抵消了:附加信贷申请计划的实施导致评级为4的企业退出市场的比例减少,而且受影响最显著的是之前生产率最低的企业。或者说,该计划妨碍了评级为4的企业中经营最差的企业被更高效率的新企业替代。
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上述研究证实的再配置效应表明,任何补贴企业的公共政策都不能只考虑对现有企业的影响,还要顾及目标产业的潜在进入者。
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创造性破坏的力量 7.结论
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本章考察了竞争与创新的关系。我们看到,总体而言,竞争会促进创新与增长,竞争对接近技术前沿的企业的创新与增长有正面作用,对远离技术前沿的企业则有负面作用。我们分析了美国的竞争程度削弱与增长率下降之间的联系,然后指出竞争与知识产权保护具有互补性,并捍卫了竞争与设计得当的产业政策可以兼容的观点。[34]在后续章节,我们还将回到其中某些议题,在第6章探讨美国增长率下降现象,第7章分析中等收入陷阱问题,第13章讨论全球化。
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[1]See, for example, Richard Blundell, Rachel Griffith, and John Van Reenen,“Dynamic Count Data Models of Technological Innovation,”EconomicJournal105,no. 429(1995)
:333 -344; Richard Blundell, Rachel Griffith, and John Van Reenen,“Market Share, Market Value and Innovation in a Panel of British Manufacturing Firms,”ReviewofEconomicStudies66, no. 3(1999)
:529 -554;Steve Nickell,“Competition and Corporate Performance,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy104, no. 4(1996)
:724 -746.
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[2]David Autor, David Dorn, Lawrence F. Katz, Christina Patterson, John Van Reenen,“The Fall of the Labor Share and the Rise of Superstar Firms,”QuarterlyJournalofEconomics135, no. 2(2020)
:645 -709.
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[3]See William J. Baumol,Microtheory
:ApplicationsandOrigins(Cambridge, MA
:MIT Press, 1986), ch. 3,“Contestable Markets: An Uprising in the Theory of Industry Structure,”40 -54.
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[4]关于“可竞争市场”的概念,参见William J. Baumol, John C. Panzar, and Robert D. Willig,Contestable Markets and the Theory of Industry Structure(New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982).
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[5]Philippe Aghion and Peter Howitt, “A Model of Growth through Creative Destruction,”Econometrica60, no. 2(1992)
:323 -351.
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[6]Blundell, Griffith, and Van Reenen,“Market Share, Market Value and Innovation”; Stephen Nickell and John Van Reenen,“The United Kingdom,” inTechnological Innovation and Economic Performance, ed. Benn Steil, David G. Victor, and Richard R. Nelson(Princeton: Princeton University Press,2002).
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[7]See Philippe Aghion, Nick Bloom, Richard Blundell, Rachel Griffith, and Peter Howitt,“Competition and Innovation: An Inverted-U Relationship,”QuarterlyJournalofEconomics120, no. 2(2005)
:701 -728; Philippe Aghion, Rachel Griffith, and Peter Howitt, “Vertical Integration and Competition,”AmericanEconomicReview96, no. 2(2006)
:97 -102; Philippe Aghion, Richard Blundell,Rachel Griffith, Peter Howitt, and Susanne Prantl, “The Effects of Entry on Incumbent Innovation and Productivity,”ReviewofEconomicsandStatistics91, no. 1(2009)
:20 -32. See also Xavier Vives,“Innovation and Competitive Pressure,”Journal of Industrial Economics56, no. 3(2008)
:419 -469.
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[8]这里用劳均产出或全要素生产率来测算生产率。
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[9]Richard R. Nelson and Edmund S. Phelps,“Investment in Humans, Technological Diffusion and Economic Growth,”AmericanEconomicsReview56, no. 1(1966):69 -75.
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[10]Aghion, Blundell, Griffith, Howitt, and Prantl, “The Effects of Entry on Incumbent Innovation and Productivity.”
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[11]Philippe Aghion, Antonin Bergeaud, Timothee Gigout, Matthieu Lequien, and Marc Melitz,“Spreading Knowledge across the World: Innovation Spillover through Trade Expansion,” unpublished manuscript, March 2019, https: // scholar. harvard. edu/ files/ aghion/ files/ spreading_knowledge_across_the_world. pdf.
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[12]Aghion, Bloom, Blundell, Griffith, and Howitt,“Competition and Innovation.”
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[13]这意味着在增长模型里,创新会增加产品的类型。See, for example, Paul M. Romer,“Endogenous Technological Change,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy98, no. 5, pt. 2(1990):71 -102.
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[14]See, for example, Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine,AgainstIntellectualMonopoly(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine,“Perfectly Competitive Innovation,”JournalofMonetaryEconomics55, no. 3(2008)
:435 -453; Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine,“The Caseagainst Patents,”JournalofEconomicPerspectives27, no. 1(2013)
:3 -22.
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[15]Philippe Aghion, Peter Howitt, and Susanne Prantl, “Patent Rights, Product Market Reforms, and Innovation,”JournalofEconomicGrowth20, no. 3(2015)
:223 -262.
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