1704517769
[8]Tim Besley and Torsten Persson,“Taxation and Development,” inHandbookofPublicEconomics, ed. A. J. Auerbach, R. Chetty, M. Feldstein, and E. Saez,vol. 5,51 -110（Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2013）.样本中的国家包括
:阿根廷、澳大利亚、巴西、加拿大、智利、哥伦比亚、丹麦、芬兰、爱尔兰、日本、墨西哥、荷兰、新西兰、挪威、瑞典、瑞士、英国和美国。数据来自Brian Mitchell,InternationalHistoricalStatistics, 3 vols. （London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007）.
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1704517771
[9]本节的内容基于如下研究: Philippe Aghion, Xavier Jaravel, Torsten Persson,and Dorothée Rouzet,“Education and Military Rivalry,”JournaloftheEuropeanEconomicAssociation17, no. 2（2019）
:376 -412.
1704517772
1704517773
[10]Charles Tilly,The Formation of National States in Western Europe（Princeton
:Princeton University Press, 1975）; Besley and Persson,“Fragile States and Development Policy.”
1704517774
1704517775
[11]拿破仑一世在耶拿战役击败普鲁士，促使普鲁士国王大规模投资学校、大学和基础设施建设，特别是重用了洪堡兄弟。
1704517776
1704517777
[12]Eugen Weber,Peasants into Frenchmen
:The Modernization of Rural France,1870 -1914（Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976）.
1704517778
1704517779
[13]Aghion, Jaravel, Persson, and Rouzet,“Education and Military Rivalry.”
1704517780
1704517781
[14]Lyndon B. Johnson,The Vantage Point
:Perspectives of the Presidency,1963-1969（New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971）.
1704517782
1704517783
[15]Pierre Azoulay, Erica Fuchs, Anna P. Goldstein, and Michael Kearney,“Funding Breakthrough Research: Promises and Challenges of the ‘ ARPA Model,’”Innovation Policy and the Economy19, no. 1（2019）:69 -96.
1704517784
1704517785
[16]自上而下方式代表的程序是，政府作为决策者，把决策指示给分散的行为人。相反，自下而上的方式是指，政府确立大致的政策方向，让地方行为人决定如何实施。
1704517786
1704517787
[17]1878—1890年间通过了几项反社会主义的法律。
1704517788
1704517789
[18]Sir William Henry Beveridge,SocialInsuranceandAlliedServices（New York
:Macmillan, 1942）.
1704517790
1704517791
[19]National Council of the Resistance,“Programme du Conseil national de la Résistance,” March 15,1944.
1704517792
1704517793
[20]工会在全国抵抗委员会中有相当多代表，法国总工会（General Confederation of Labour, CGT）在1945年有400万会员。
1704517794
1704517795
[21]See Pierre Rosanvallon,LaCrisedel’Etat-providence（Paris: Seuil, in collaboration with Points Politique, 1981）.
1704517796
1704517797
[22]电影《阿达伦31》讲述过这一悲剧，参见Bo Widerberg, dir. ,Adalen31,Svensk Filmindustri, 1969.
1704517798
1704517799
[23]Yuval Noah Harari,21Lessonsforthe21stCentury（New York: Spiegel &Grau, 2018）.
1704517800
1704517801
[24]Monique Canto-Sperber,La Fin des libertés:Ou comment refonder le libéralisme（Paris: Robert Laffont, 2019）.
1704517802
1704517803
[25]Canto-Sperber,LaFindeslibertés.
1704517804
1704517805
[26]Milton Friedman,CapitalismandFreedom（Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962）.
1704517806
1704517807
[27]John M. Keynes and Hubert D. Henderson,CanLloydGeorgeDoIt
:AnExaminationoftheLiberalPledge（London: The Nation and Athenaeum,1929）, reprinted in John M. Keynes,“Can Lloyd George Do It?” inEssaysinPersuasion, 86 -125（London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010）.
1704517808
1704517809
[28]John M. Keynes,The General Theory of Employment
:Interest:and Money（New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1936）.
1704517810
1704517811
[29]Willie O’Dea,“Why Our Response to Crisis Isn’t Wrong,”IrishIndependent, January 4,2009.
1704517812
1704517813
[30]Philippe Aghion, George-Mario Angeletos, Abhijit Banerjee, and Kalina Manova,“Volatility and Growth: Credit Constraints and the Composition of Investment,”JournalofMonetaryEconomics57, no. 3（2010）
:246 -265.
1704517814
1704517815
[31]量化宽松是一种财政政策，中央银行从金融机构那里购买数额庞大的债务，特别是政府债券和企业债券。
1704517816
1704517817
[32]Philippe Aghion, David Hémous, and Enisse Kharroubi,“Cyclical Fiscal Policy,Credit Constraints, and Industry Growth,”JournalofMonetaryEconomics62（2014）
:41 -58; Philippe Aghion, Emmanuel Farhi, and Enisse Kharroubi,“Monetary Policy, Product Market Competition and Growth,”Economica86,no. 343（2019）
:431 -470.
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