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Informal regulators include the individual producers themselves,peers in the profession and industry,as well as society at large.The informal sanctions could be guilt and shame,or sense of achievement on the part of the individuals,disapproval/approval by other practitioners or organizations,or disapproval/approval by members of the public.
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In any case of media critique,more than one regulator is relevant.This means individuals and organizations are susceptible to formal and informal sanctions from multiple regulators at the same time.Media critique is the most effective when both formal and informal regulators respond,and act consistently with each other.
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Critic
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The role of the critic lies in providing the evaluation on which regulators could act.Whether the regulators would respond to the critique depends on the power of the critic in relation to that of the regulators,and access of the critique by the regulators.
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The media critic could be an individual or an organization.Individual critics could be professional critics or citizens who perform acts of critiquing from time to time.Professional critics who form part of a media organization,such as ombudsmen and public editors in news organizations,are more likely to command response from the regulators,such as the chief editor,due to the power built into their positions.Other professional critics could be affiliated with professional magazines,or media concern groups.
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Ordinary citizens express views about various aspects of the media from time to time,but these views count as critique only when they are evaluative in nature,and are communicated publicly.Usually this public communication is directed towards formal media regulators or members of the public,for example,as complaints,or letters to the editors.Experts,such as university professors,when acting as critics,may enjoy greater attention from media regulators than other citizens.
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Organizational critics could be professional bodies or industry associations,such as journalist associations and press councils.Like ombudsmen,they act as critics when they initiate assess of performance,and as regulators when they respond to critiques made by others.
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Producer
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The producers of media involve multiple levels of personnel situated in institutions:Individual producers are likely to form part of a team,which constitutes part of a section under a department in a work organization.The work organization could be a commercial company that is privately-run or publicly listed,or it could be a public service organization or simply a part of the government.The nature of the organization sets the constraints and capabilities within which the multiple levels of producers could respond to the regulators.At the same time,individual producers are members of a profession,and work organizations are part of the relevant media industry.
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If the producer or organization responds to the regulators,change could be made to the object being critiqued,which could take the form of retrospective apology,modification or suspension of the product.
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Three Levels of Media Critique
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Recently,scholars in China have made efforts to map the field of media critique/criticism（e.g.Huang Hsinsheng,1991;Lei Yuejie,2007;Wang Junchao,2001）.This paper attempts to contribute to such effort by proposing a typology of media critique composed of three levels:（1）media review,（2）media watch,and（3）media criticism（Table one）.The typology is a development that takes into account,but goes beyond,the distinction usually made between media critique and radical media critique.
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A textbook on media criticism lists these functions of the critic（Orlik,2009）:
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1.Serving as guide
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2.Bridge building between producers and consumers
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3.Entertaining
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4.Suggesting new directions to producers
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5.Serving as a proxy or watchdog
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6.Proposing system-cognizant change
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These functions differ in the degree of change that is aimed at.When media critique serves the first of the above three functions-as a guide,bridge between producers and consumers,and entertainment-it accepts fundamentally the media system and arrangements as they are,and whatever influence that media exerts on the audience and society.If there is any change that these functions may bring about,it is most likely the choice of the potential consumers-of consuming or not consuming the product.
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As for the function“suggesting new directions,”it includes suggesting new subjects,new techniques,and showing the audience“formal interrelationships which bind the work together,meanings which make up its truth,and expressive significance which gives it resonance and depth”（Stolnitz,Orlik,2009,p.24）.The changes sought in this function of media critique relate to programmatic techniques（Orlik,2009）.
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When serving as a proxy or watchdog,the media critic“fairly describe［s］ the operations of media and spotlight［s］ mistakes when they occur.”She also“discover［s］ the concerns of citizens and define［s］ what the public needs to know in very expansive terms,”including“ways our high-profile enterprise interacts in society”（Orlik,2009,p.28）.Whatever change that is proposed to the actual system organization or priorities,however,it must be workable within the（capitalist）system（Orlik,2009）.
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By emphasizing that changes proposed must be possible within the parameters of the social and political environment,Orlik（2009）left out from the list the most radical function of media critique.Rescuing what is left out would complete the range of media critique.The full range of media critique would encompass three levels,corresponding to the three regions of media practice described by Hallin（1989）:
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1.Media review is situated in the sphere of consensus,which encompasses norms and values generally accepted in society.