1705042574
西南联大英文课（英汉双语版） [:1705033869]
1705042575
40 美国人对自由之热爱
1705042576
1705042577
美国人的性格中，对自由的热爱是主要特点，正是这一特点成为美国人整体性格的标志，美国人其与众不同的标签；由于对某种东西的热爱总是使人害怕失去这种东西，因此，如果你们的殖民地看到你们有一丝企图想通过暴力剥夺或通过诡计骗走他们唯一值得期盼的利益，它们就会变得多疑、难以驾驭和控制。这种强烈的自由精神在英国的殖民地也许比地球上任何其他国家都要强烈，而且，这种自由精神的确立拥有众多强有力的原因。为了理解美国人性情中的真正特征以及这种精神发展的方向，有必要更详细地阐发一下。
1705042578
1705042579
1．首先，殖民地的人民是英国人的后代。勋爵阁下，英格兰曾经是多么崇拜自由，我希望今天的英格兰依然是一个尊重自由的国家。就在你们性格中的这部分特点最突出的时候，现在的殖民者离开你们移居国外，他们离开时就带着这种爱好和倾向。因此，他们不仅仅献身于自由，而且是根据英国人的信念和原则献身于自由。抽象的自由，就像其他纯粹的抽象事物一样无处可寻。自由存在于可觉察的事物中；每个国家都形成了自己最喜爱的某个方面，通过推崇这一方面使之成为他们幸福的标准。勋爵阁下，要知道，这个国家因自由而发生的重大对抗最早恰巧是因为征税而引起的。古代联邦中，绝大部分争论主要集中在地方行政官的选举权方面，或集中在国家几个阶层之间的平衡方面。钱的问题与他们之间的联系并不是很直接。可是，在英格兰，情况并非如此。关于税收这一点，最有才华的写手和最善言辞的说客都各显其能，最伟大的人物也都投身其中并深受其害。为了最大限度地表现这一点的重要性，辩称英国宪法卓越的人不仅需要坚持认为缴税的特权就像事实的明证，而且要证明这种权利早就得到古老羊皮纸文献以及名为下议院的特殊机构中惯例的承认。远不止如此，这部分人试图证明自己成功了，理论上应该如此，因为下议院作为人民直接代表的属性决定了这一点，无论古老的记录是否做出了这样的预言。他们竭尽全力反复强调，作为一条基本原则，在所有的君主制国家中，人民必须保持自己间接或直接缴纳钱财的权力有效，否则自由的庇护将不复存在。殖民地源自你们，他们的命脉、理念和原则也都源自你们。他们对自由的热爱和你们一样，都植根并附着于征税这一特定方面。自由可能是安全的，也可能是有危险的，在其他二十项详细说明中，他们并没有感到非常高兴或极度惊慌。但他们感受到了自由的脉搏，因为通过脉搏的跳动可以确定自己是生病还是健康。我不是判定他们将你们的一般论证用于自己的情况是对还是错。的确，要完全控制定理和推论并不容易。事实上，他们的确应用这些一般论证；你们统治他们的方式，无论仁慈还是懒惰，明智还是错误，都使他们在想象中确认：他们和你们一样，都对这些一般原则感兴趣。
1705042580
1705042581
2．他们省级立法机关的组成形式使他们进一步确信这种错误令人愉悦，他们的政府有的极受欢迎；有的仅仅是受欢迎，总之，受欢迎的代表最为重要，普通政府中的这种人总是成功地激发他们的高尚情操，以及对剥夺他们最重要权利的任何企图强烈厌恶。
1705042582
1705042583
3．如果说这种形式的政府进行必要的运转还缺少什么，那么宗教将使其达到完美的效果。宗教始终是能量的源泉，在这些新的民众间丝毫没有受到消耗或损害；民众的表达方式也是这种自由精神的一个主要动因。这些人是新教徒，他们最反对精神和观点方面的任何盲从与屈服。这一教派不仅赞成自由，而且其形成的基础就是自由。勋爵阁下，我认为看上去完全像专制政府的异见教会中出现这种反对意见的原因大多无法在他们的宗教信条或历史中找到。每个人都知道，罗马天主教在其盛行的地方至少与大部分政府同时并存；而且通常与政府联系紧密，从行政管理机构中获得巨大利益及各种支持。英国国教会也是在合法政府的关怀照顾下发展起来的。可是，异见群体涌现出来，如果想直接反对世界上所有平常的强权，只能通过大力宣扬天赋自由来为这种反对进行辩护。这种群体的存在依赖于对天赋自由这一权利的持续需求，而且这一需求变得非常强烈。所有的新教徒，包括最冷淡的人和最消极的人在内，都不顺从英国国教。可是，我们北美殖民地上最流行的宗教是对抵抗原则的革新，是异见派中的异见，新教中的新教。这种宗教，教派名称各异，除了共享自由精神外，各个方面均不一致，主要在北部各省流行。英国国教在这些地方虽然拥有法定权利，但实际上仅仅是一种私人教派，信奉的人不到十分之一。这些殖民者在新教精神高涨时离开英国，在移民过程中，新教精神达到顶点；持续移民到这些殖民地的外国人绝大部分是所在国的异见派，他们的性情和性格与殖民地的其他人极为相似。
1705042584
1705042585
4．勋爵阁下，通过有些议员的态度，我能感觉到他们反对这种描述，因为在南部殖民地，英国国教会形成了一个大的团体，建立了正规的机构。这当然是事实。不过，依我看来，这些殖民地所处的环境完全可以抵消这种差别，使自由精神依然高涨，甚至超过北方。在弗吉尼亚和南北卡罗来纳，有数量众多的奴隶。在世界任何一个情况类似的地方，拥有自由的人最为自己的自由感到骄傲和自豪。对他们而言，自由不仅仅是一种享受，更是一种等级和特权。自由在有些国家是一种普通的幸福，就像天空一样宽广，像空气一样常见，在这里，情况完全不同，自由可能与凄惨的劳役、巨大的痛苦、明显的奴役联系在一起，自由在其中显得更为高贵和开放。勋爵阁下，我并不是要赞美这种情操的超群道义，这种情操至少与其中的美德同样让人自豪，但是，我无法改变人的本性。事实如此，南方殖民地的人相对于北方人对自由的热爱更为强烈，捍卫自由的精神更高涨，意志更坚定。古代所有的联邦都是如此，我们的哥特祖先也是如此，波兰人也不例外，所有的奴隶主也将如此，因为他们本身没有做过奴隶。在这样的人民中间，唯我独尊的傲慢与自由之精神结合在一起，使自由进一步加强，变得不可战胜。
1705042586
1705042587
5．勋爵阁下，请允许我补充殖民地的另一个情况，这一情况对自由这种难以控制的精神之发展及影响发挥了重要作用。我指的是这些人的教育。也许，世界上没有任何一个国家能像这个国家如此普遍地学习法学，不仅从事法学的职业人士众多，而且受法学的影响很大，在大部分省份，法学都居于首位。国会议员大多是律师。所有能阅读的人（这里绝大部分的人都喜欢阅读）都试图了解这一学科。一位著名的书商告诉我，除了备受欢迎的礼拜手册外，没有哪类书能像法律图书一样如此众多地出口到这块殖民地。现在，殖民者已经开始印刷法律图书供自己使用。听说布莱克斯通的《英国法释义》（—译《英格兰法释义》）在美国和在英国售出的数量相当。在您桌上的一封信件里，盖奇将军特别描述了这一倾向。他说自己的政府中所有的人都是律师或者略懂法律的人，在波士顿，他们能够通过成功的诡辩，完全逃避你们重要刑法的大部分惩罚。精明的辩驳会说，法律知识应该使他们更明白立法机构的权利，明白他们应该遵守的义务以及反抗带来的处罚。这种说法很有道理。可是，议员席上屈尊批评我的那位可敬而博学的朋友，将会鄙弃这一立论根据。他听到的和我听到的一样，那就是：如果无上的荣誉和丰厚的报酬未能使这种知识服务于国家，那么它将成为政府可怕的对手。如果这种精神没有被这些巧妙的方法所驯服和破坏，那么这种精神就会变得难以处理，变成容易引起争辩之事。凡有所学，皆成性格。这种学习使人敏锐，使人好奇，使人灵巧，使人敏于攻击，使人善于防守，使人左右逢源。在其他国家，人民相对更简单，没有那么精明，只能通过人民经受的苦难来判断政府政策的错误，而这里的人民能够预测不幸，评判恶政带来的苦难压力。他们可以提前预言恶政，消灭每个处于萌芽阶段的暴政。
1705042588
1705042589
6．殖民地这种反抗精神的最后一个原因与其他原因相比并不逊色，因为这一原因不仅仅属于道德层面，还深深植根于事物的自然法则之中。您和他们之间隔着三千英里的海洋，没有什么办法能够阻止这一距离对统治的削弱作用。命令与其实际执行之间隔着波浪滔滔的大海和流逝的岁月，如果对某一方面无法进行快速解释，就足以破坏整个系统。的确，您迅速派出了复仇大使，带着弩箭突袭最遥远的海岸。可是，有一种力量限制了这种傲慢的愤怒和狂暴的因素，它在说“你也只能到这么远，不能再远”。你是谁，竟然如此烦躁和愤怒并撕咬大自然的链条？你们不会遭遇到比所有辽阔的帝国更糟糕的事情，这些事情以各种形式出现，使蒙受这些遭遇的帝国遭到抛弃。在辽阔的疆域，权力的循环到达末端时必定变得无力。大自然已经证明了这一点。土耳其无法像统治色雷斯那样统治埃及、阿拉伯半岛和库尔德斯坦；也无法在克里米亚和阿尔及尔实行与在布尔萨和士麦那一样的统治。专制本身不得不进行交易和讨价还价，连苏丹都不得不服从这一规律。他采用松散的统治方式，这样就可以从根本上进行统治，他中央权力所有的力量和活力源自整个疆域内松散的管理，这一做法极为精明。他统治的西班牙也许不像您自己的领地那样顺从。但西班牙也服从，也顺从，等待时机的到来。这种状况不会改变，是辽阔而松散帝国面临的永恒法则。
1705042590
1705042591
（总结）勋爵阁下，通过这六个重要来源（血统、政体形式、北部各省的宗教、南方的习俗、教育、统治一开始就出现的遥远距离）所有这些促使强烈的自由精神成长起来。自由精神伴随着殖民地人民共同成长，随着他们财富的增加而变得日益强烈。这种精神不幸遇到了英国的强权。尽管，这种强权的运用是合法的，却和所有的自由理念冲突，与殖民地人民的自由理念更是不相吻合，因此，已经激发出必将毁灭我们的火焰。
1705042592
1705042593
（彭萍 译）
1705042594
1705042595
西南联大英文课（英汉双语版） [:1705033870]
1705042596
41 WHAT IS A UNIVERSITY?
1705042597
1705042598
By John Henry Newman
1705042599
1705042600
1705042601
WHAT IS A UNIVERSITY?by John Henry Newman, from his Rise and Progress of Universities , Chapter II, reprinted in his Historical Sketches , Vol. I.
1705042602
1705042603
1705042604
1705042605
John Henry Newman （1801-1890）, English theologian and author, known also as Cardinal Newman.
1705042606
1705042607
If I were asked to describe as briefly and popularly as I could, what a university was, I should draw my answer from its ancient designation of a Studium Generale , or “School of Universal Learning.” This description implies the assemblage of strangers from all parts in one spot—from all parts; else, how will you find professors and students for every department of knowledge; and in one spot; else, how can there be any school at all? Accordingly, in its simple and rudimental form, it is a school of knowledge of every kind, consisting of teachers and learners from every quarter. Many things are requisite to complete and satisfy the idea embodied in this description; but such as this a university seems to be in its essence, a place for the communication and circulation of thought, by means of personal intercourse, through a wide extent of country.
1705042608
1705042609
There is nothing far-fetched or unreasonable in the idea thus presented to us; and if this be a university, then a university does but contemplate a necessity of our nature, and is but one specimen in a particular medium, out of many which might be abduced in others, of a provision for that necessity. Mutual education, in a large sense of the word, is one of the great and incessant occupations of human society, carried on partly with set purpose, and partly not. One generation forms another; and the existing generation is ever acting and reacting upon itself in the persons of its individual members. Now, in this process, books, I need scarcely say, that is, the litera scripta , are one special instrument. It is true;and emphatically so in this age. Considering the prodigious powers of the press, and how they are developed at this time in the never-intermitting issue of periodicals, tracts, pamphlets, works in series, and light literature, we must allow there never was a time which promised fairer for dispensing with every other means of information and instruction. What can we want more, you will say, for the intellectual education of the whole man, and for every man, than so exuberant and diversified and persistent a promulgation of all kinds of knowledge? Why, you will ask, need we go up to knowledge, when knowledge comes down to us? The Sibyl wrote her prophecies upon the leaves of the forest, and wasted them;but here such careless profusion might be prudently indulged, for it can be afforded without loss, in consequence of the almost fabulous fecundity of the instrument which these latter ages have invented. We have sermons in stones, and books in the running brooks; works larger and more comprehensive than those which have gained for ancients an immortality, issue forth every morning, and are projected onward to the ends of the earth at the rate of hundreds of miles a day. Our seats are strewed, our pavements are powdered, with swarms of little tracts; and the very bricks of our city walls preach wisdom, by informing us by their placards where we can at once cheaply purchase it.
1705042610
1705042611
I allow all this, and much more; such certainly is our popular education, and its effects are remarkable. Nevertheless, after all, even in this age, whenever men are really serious about getting what, in the language of trade, is called “a good article,” when they aim at something precise, something refined, something really luminous, something really large, something choice, they go to another market;they avail themselves, in some shape or other, of the rival method, the ancient method, of oral instruction, of present communication between man and man, of teachers instead of learning, of the personal influence of a master, and the humble imitation of a disciple, and, in consequence, of great centers of pilgrimage and throng, which such a method of education necessarily involves. This, I think, will be found to hold good in all those departments or aspects of society which possess an interest sufficient to bind men together, or to constitute what is called “a world.” It holds in the political world, and in the high world, and in the religious world; and it holds also in the literary and scientific world.
1705042612
1705042613
If the actions of men may be taken as any test of their convictions then, we have reason for saying this, viz: that the province and the inestimable benefit of the litera scripta is that of being a record of truth, and an authority of appeal, and an instrument of teaching in the hands of a teacher; but that, if we wish to become exact and fully furnished in any branch of knowledge which is diversified and complicated, we must consult the living man and listen to his living voice. I am not bound to investigate the cause of this, and anything I say will, I am conscious, be short of its full analysis—perhaps we may suggest that no books can get through the number of minute questions which it is possible to ask on any extended subject, or can hit upon the very difficulties which are severally felt by each reader in succession. Or again, that no book can convey the special spirit and delicate peculiarities of its subject with that rapidity and certainty which attend on the sympathy of mind with mind, through the eyes, the look, the accent, and the manner, in casual expressions thrown off at the moment, and the unstudied turns of familiar conversation. But I am already dwelling too long on what is but an incidental portion of my main subject. Whatever be the cause, the fact is undeniable. The general principles of any study you may learn by books at home; but the detail, the color, the tone, the air, the life which makes it live in us, you must catch all these from those in whom it lives already. You must imitate the student in French or German, who is not content with his grammar, but goes to Paris or Dresden;you must take example from the young artist, who aspires to visit the great Masters in Florence and in Rome. Till we have discovered some intellectual daguerreotype, which takes of the course of thought, and the form, lineaments, and features of truth, as completely and minutely, as the optical instrument reproduces the sensible object, we must come to the teachers of wisdom to learn wisdom, we must repair to the fountain and drink there. Portions of it may go from thence to the ends of the earth by means of books; but the fullness is in one place alone. It is in such assemblages and congregations of intellect that books themselves, the masterpieces of human genius, are written, or at least originated.
1705042614
1705042615
The principle on which I have been insisting is so obvious, and instances in point are so ready, that I should think it tiresome to proceed with the subject, except that one or two illustrations may serve to explain my own language about it, which may not have done justice to the doctrine which it has been intended to enforce.
1705042616
1705042617
For instance, the polished manners and high-bred bearing which are so difficult of attainment, and so strictly personal when attained—which are so much admired in society, from society are acquired. All that goes to constitute a gentleman—the carriage, gait, address, gestures, voice; the ease, the self-possession, the courtesy, the power of conversing, the talent of not offending; the lofty principle, the delicacy of thought, the happiness of expression, the taste and propriety, the generosity and forbearance, the candor and consideration, the openness of hand—these qualities, some of them come by nature, some of them may be found in any rank, some of them are a direct precept of Christianity; but the full assemblage of them, bound up in the unity of an individual character, do we expect they can be learned from books? Are they not necessarily acquired, where they are to be found, in high society? The very nature of the case leads us to say so; you cannot fence without an antagonist, nor challenge all comers in disputation before you have supported a thesis;and in like manner, it stands to reason, you cannot learn to converse till you have the world to converse with; you cannot unlearn your natural bashfulness, or awkwardness, or stiffness, or other besetting deformity, till you serve your time in some school of manners. Well, and is it not so in matter of fact? The metropolis, the court, the great house of the land, are the centers to which at stated times the country comes up, as to shrines of refinement and good taste; and then in due time the country goes back again home, enriched with a portion of the social accomplishments, which these very visits serve to call out and heighten in the gracious dispensers of them. We are unable to conceive how the “gentleman” can otherwise be maintained; and maintained in this way it is.
1705042618
1705042619
And now a second instance; and here too I am going to speak without personal experience of the subject I am introducing. I admit I have not been in Parliament any more than I have figured in the beau monde; yet I cannot but think that statesmanship, as well as high breeding, is learned, not by books, but in certain centers of education. If it be not presumption to say so, Parliament puts a clever man au courant with politics and affairs of state in a way surprising to himself. A member of the legislature, if tolerably observant, begins to see things with new eyes, even though his views undergo no change. Words have a meaning now, and ideas a reality, such as they had not before. He hears a vast deal in public speeches and private conversation which is never put in print. The bearing of measures and events, the action of parties, and the persons of friends and enemies, are brought out to the man who is in the midst of them with a distinctness, which the most diligent perusal of newspapers will fail to impart to them. It is access to the fountainheads of political wisdom and experience, it is daily intercourse, of one kind or another, with the multitude who go up to them, it is familiarity with business, it is access to the contributions of fact and opinion thrown together by many witnesses from many quarters, which does this for him. However, I need not account for the fact, to which it is sufficient to appeal, that the Houses of Parliament and the atmosphere around them are a sort of university of politics.
1705042620
1705042621
As regards the whole world of science, we find a remarkable instance of the principle which I am illustrating, in the periodical meetings for its advance, which have arisen in the course of the last twenty years, such as the British Association. Such gatherings would to many persons appear at first sight simply preposterous. Above all subjects of study science is conveyed, is propagated, by books, or by private teachings;experiments and investigations are conducted in silence;discoveries are made in solitude. What have philosophers to do with festive celebrities, and panegyrical solemnities with mathematical and physical truth? Yet on a closer attention to the subject, it is found that not even scientific thought can dispense with the suggestions, the instruction, the stimulus, the sympathy, the intercourse with mankind on a large scale, which such meetings secure. A fine time of year is chosen, when days are long, skies are bright, the earth smiles and all nature rejoices; a city or town is taken by turns, of ancient name or modern opulence, where buildings are spacious and hospitality hearty. The novelty of place and circumstance, the excitement of strange, or the refreshment of well-known faces, the majesty of rank or genius, the amiable charities of men pleased both with themselves and with each other; the elevated spirits, the circulation of thought, the curiosity; the morning sections, the out-door exercise, the well-furnished, well-earned board, the not ungraceful hilarity, the evening circle; the brilliant lecture, the discussions or collisions or guesses of great men one with another, the narratives of scientific processes, of hopes, disappointments, conflicts, and successes, the splendid eulogistic orations; these and the like constituents of the annual celebration are considered to be something real and substantial for the advance of knowledge which can be done no other way. Of course they can but be occasional; they answer the annual act, or commencement, or commemoration of a university, not to its ordinary condition;but they are of a university nature; and I can well believe in their utility. They issue in the promotion of a certain living and, as it were, bodily communication of knowledge from one to another, of a general interchanging of ideas, and a comparison and adjustment of science with science, of an enlargement of mind, intellectual and social, of an ardent love of the particular study which may be chosen by each individual, and a noble devotion to its interests.
1705042622
1705042623
Such meetings, I repeat, are but periodical, and only partially represent the idea of a university. The bustle and whirl which are their usual concomitant, are in ill keeping with the order and gravity of earnest intellectual education. We desiderate means of instruction which involve no interruption of our ordinary habits; nor need we seek it long, for the natural course of things brings it about, while we debate over it. In every great country, the metropolis itself becomes a sort of necessary university, whether we will or no. As the chief city is the seat of the court, of high society, of politics, and of law, so as a matter of course is it the seat of letters also; and at this time, for a long term of years, London and Paris are in fact and in operation universities, though in Paris its famous university is no more, and in London a university scarcely exists except as a board of administration. The newspapers, magazines, reviews, museums and academies there found, the learned and scientific societies necessarily invest it with the functions of a university; and that atmosphere of intellect, which in a former age hung over Oxford or Bologna or Salamanca, has, with the change of times, moved away to the center of civil government. Thither come up youths from all parts of the country, the students of law, medicine, and the fine arts, and the employees and attachés of literature. There they live, as chance determines; and they are satisfied with their temporary home, for they find in it all that was promised to them there. They have not come in vain, as far as their own object in coming is concerned. They have not learned any particular religion, but they have learned their own particular profession well. They have, moreover, become acquainted with the habits, manners and opinions of their place of sojourn, and done their part in maintaining the tradition of them. We cannot then be without virtual universities;a metropolis is such: the simple question is, whether the education sought and given should be based on principle, formed upon rule, directed to the highest ends, or left to the random succession of masters and schools, one after another, with a melancholy waste of thought and an extreme hazard of truth.