1705132852 Recent years have witnessed abundant comparative studies claiming more commonalities than discrepancies between Chinese and Western persuasive techniques, commonalities remarkably produced in the contexts of radically different languages. One author uses these studies to argue that rhetoric may represent an inherent commonality among human beings: “It would appear that universal rhetorical elements exist and that these elements connect humans of different cultures, building a bridge across the communication gaps between them” (Lu, 1998: 30). Toward that same conclusion, philosopher Richard J. Bernstein writes that “[incommensurable] languages and traditions are not to be thought of as self-contained windowless monads that share nothing in common… There are always points of overlap and crisscrossing even if there is not perfect commensuration” (Lu, 1998: 85-103). These scholars suggest these points of shared experiences provide starting points for developing mutually acceptable means for nonviolent decision-making processes.

1705132853

1705132854 However, while appreciating the commonalities among these rhetorical features, the authors acknowledge the lack of propriety and fairness in a process of canonizing one rhetorical culture, imposing its framework to analyze another, namely using the Greco-Roman system to parse Chinese discourses. Students reading this textbook—students both from China and from the United States—can remember that the tools designed from and used for analysis of Western persuasive strategies can assess Chinese passages only as those passages do or do not comply with the philosophies inherent in the design of the tools. An important argument can be made that such an application of Greco-Roman argumentation may not necessarily be applicable to Chinese passages.

1705132855

1705132856 To more clearly illuminate the problem of assessing one culture’s production with the tools of another culture, one can simply ask this question: What if Chinese persuasive strategies were used to assess Western ones? A similar disconnect might occur. The very presentation of different rhetorical styles inherently calls up the different bases of cultural values used to shape those styles. Recognition and understanding of those basic differences provide a beginning from which a debater may develop the art of global debate toward discovering ways for human beings to move forward through intelligent, thoughtful, and ethical interchange among cultures.

1705132857

1705132858 Regarding the differences between Chinese and Greco-Roman rhetoric, metaphor, analogies, and appeals to authoritative testimonies are far more prevalent in Chinese persuasive discourse than are deductive and inductive methods of reasoning used in Western argumentation; to establish the latter as the orthodox system is to eclipse the unique and intrinsic nature of the former. Just as scholarship has emerged from Greco-Roman scholars studying their own rhetorical practices, so have research projects studied the virtues of Chinese rhetoric in its own terms and structures. For instance, Qu (2009: 61-71) uses Qi to describe the inexplicable intricacies in Chinese discourse, intricacies that constitute a key concept that “dominates and orchestrates the rhetorical practice”. In another example, Mao (2007: 216-237) explored the “yin-yang” concept that was “rhetorically important in ancient China”.

1705132859

1705132860 One key with regard to multicultural diversities and commonalities in persuasive discourses, then, is to create an amalgam of systems where, for example, the culturally specific virtues of multiple cultures, such as the virtues of Chinese persuasive discourses, are honored. Both Chinese students and Western students can gain value by learning about Western argumentation and Chinese rhetorical culture. If a student from either culture wishes to communicate effectively across cultural borders, then each culture has much to learn from the other. Bonds between nations already have tightened cultures and societies into one global community where treaties govern currency exchange and international business, environment protection, the World Wide Web, etc. Effective, ethical debate provides a means to use persuasive dialogues to seek out conflict resolution measures rather than resorting to violence as peoples work toward agreements regarding various, critical, global decisions to be made. These dialogues can facilitate cross-cultural and transnational communication within the present, unprecedented, globally integrated situation, promoting a better understanding of and respect for each other’s rhetorical cultures.

1705132861

1705132862 This understanding is especially important for the younger generation in China and the United States. If China’s voice is to be heard and to be better understood by the Western world and if the voice of the Western world is to be better understood by China, Chinese practices and Western practices by the younger generations need to engage ethical and effective argumentation strategies, negotiating a global system that better incorporates multiple voices. Such actions would comply with the words of Chinese Rhetorician Liu Yameng (1999: 297-315), who sought “to justify my positions in your terms”. That multiplicity of knowing might help surmount obstacles resulting from cultural differences but also may operate as models for others seeking better communication and more effective decision-making between people of different cultures.

1705132863

1705132864 思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132292]

1705132865 1.4 Developments in Educational Debate

1705132866

1705132867 The term, “educational debate,” refers to the process of teaching students to debate. At present, the teaching of educational debates takes approximately the same form worldwide: students learn from instruction on college campuses and also participate in intercollegiate debate tournaments usually held on some weekends at different colleges. The instruction presents information and trains students in debating and argumentation skills. The debate tournaments provide opportunities for students to practice those skills.

1705132868

1705132869 Both the instruction and the debate formats have undergone significant modification in the last century, spawning multiple formats to represent the varied ways people feel most able to present their positions in fair and productive arenas. British Parliamentary debate, Canadian Parliamentary debate, Worlds-Style debate, Australasian debate, Cross-Examination debate, Public Forum debate, and Lincoln-Douglas debate are a few examples that demonstrate not only different arrangements of teams and speakers but also of differences in whether or not a speaker can be directly questioned by another speaker, whether a speaker presents more than one speech in the debate, and whether the debate is heard by a single or multiple adjudicators.

1705132870

1705132871 In addition, variations among debaters and debate styles have grown. Some debate tournaments feature styles where speakers provide a tightly condensed stream of evidence, speaking in a rapid fashion for the duration of their allotted time. Some tournaments feature styles where a speaker’s character, wit, and emotional presentation play a more prominent role. Some debates call for two individuals to face each other, some for two teams, and some for four teams. Some of the more narrative-based cultures, for example, have widened the scope of presentational styles to emphasize description, metaphor, or analogy. In short, the conceptualization of what originally was the Greco-Roman debate style has been evolving during the last century as other styles of oral presentation have entered the global conversation.

1705132872

1705132873 Debate tournaments in educational debate might be thought of as laboratories: places where students can experiment with their speaking styles, their argument choices, their reasoning designs, and their ethical codes. Tournaments generally include several teams from several universities who debate in a one-, two- or three-day event. Since a student might attend as many as five, six, or more tournaments a year, he or she will have ample time between tournaments to review their performances, research and plan for future debates, learn new skills, and talk with other debaters, instructors, coaches, and adjudicators about their experiences. With each tournament, then, a student can try out new ways to implement their own debate strategies. Over the duration of their college experience, debate students improve their abilities to adhere to ethical means of speaking with others, research and discuss important global topics, speak intelligently and persuasively to an audience, think quickly and effectively in question-answer sessions, design creative ways to address difficult problems, address multi-faceted problems from numerous different starting points, and respond productively to criticism.

1705132874

1705132875 Although the histories of educational debate in the United States and in China differ, the present-day intercollegiate practices provide training for students from both countries to prepare them to participate in international debates all over the world. The recent proliferation of international tournaments for college-aged debaters provides students with significant opportunities to learn about global issues from individuals who, like themselves, have experienced some of the issues first hand. Educational debate in both the United States and China prepare students for “real life” argument situations, whether they be career situations such as lawyers or barristers, community situations such as serving on the city council, or individual situations such as helping the family to decide whether they should move to a new locale. The histories of educational debate in each country demonstrate their respective roads to a shared educational practice.

1705132876

1705132877 思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132293]

1705132878 1.4.1 Educational Debate in the United States

1705132879

1705132880 Debate became popular in the United States and other Western societies in the first decade of the 19th century. In the United Kingdom, for instance, debate was sponsored at St. Andrews(Scotland), Cambridge University, Oxford University, and the London School of Economics. Intercollegiate debating became a popular activity in United States in the middle of the 20th century and was supported by colleges and universities including Harvard University, Yale University, the University of Wisconsin, Willamette University, and others. These debate societies had a hand in the formation of the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking(now called the National Communication Association). The goal of these colleges and universities was to promote debate as a method of teaching public speaking (Wallace, 1954: 496).

1705132881

1705132882 Today, debate is quite popular in Western, as well as Eastern colleges and universities, particularly in the association called the “World Universities Debating Council (WUDC).” The first WUDC tournament was held at Fordham University in New York City and subsequently has rotated through various nations including Ireland, Australia, Scotland, Canada, the United States, South Africa, Greece, Botswana, Germany and India.

1705132883

1705132884 In the United States, competitive debate is sponsored by at least five organizations: the American Forensic Association, the Cross Examination Debate Association, the National Parliamentary Debate Association, the American Parliamentary Debate Association, and the U. S. Universities Debate Association. Each of these associations sponsors intercollegiate debate tournaments as well as hosts a national championship for its association.

1705132885

1705132886 思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132294]

1705132887 1.4.2 Educational Debate in China

1705132888

1705132889 As debate spread in the United States in the 19th and 20th centuries, it also spread in Asia, including China, starting in the late 20th century. In Asia, debate was initially promoted as a means to teach spoken English. Debate organizers believed that by requiring students to debate in a non-native language, students could learn to speak and write English more fluently.

1705132890

1705132891 In 1993, Fudan University in Shanghai won the championship of the first International Varsity Debate (I.V.D.) held in Singapore with a triple purpose of promoting Chinese language; enhancing the communication and friendship among contestant countries, regions, and universities; and boosting the cooperation among international counterparts (Wang and Wu, 2003). For the next twenty years, I.V.D was hosted by Singapore and China every two years alternatively. Championship debaters drew rapid and significant attention. The impact of the first I.V.D. kicked off a nationwide debate wave in China. However, with too much emphasis on polished language and a flashy speaking style, along with a lack of engagement in arguments and rigor in logic, I.V.D quickly lost its glamour (Wang, 2010: 95). Thereafter, I.V.D. has been modifying its format constantly to improve the quality of arguments and sharpen the focus of the debate on the engagement of an idea. These changes strengthened debate cultures on campuses in China.

1705132892

1705132893 In recent years, intercollegiate English debating competitions have swept across China. Increasingly, on-campus English debating clubs have been established in significantly more colleges where regular debating activities are staged. National tournaments like the China Open and the Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press (FLTRP) Cup have involved hundreds of teams. In the past several years, Worlds-Style debate has been practiced nationwide. The number of Chinese debaters participating in international tournaments has increased as have their successes: among others, the championship in English as Foreign Language (EFL) at the World Universities Debating Championship (WUDC) by Tsinghua University in 2007, and Championship in EFL in Asian British Parliamentary Debate by Sichuan University in 2013.

1705132894

1705132895 Debate is now promoted in China for more reasons than simply to improve students’ effective use of English. Debate also is promoted as a method to improve students’critical thinking skills. Scholarly evidence confirms that participation in debate enhances students’ critical-thinking abilities (Allen, Berkowitz, Hunt, and Louden 1999: 18-30). Debaters improve those skills as they learn to use evidence and reasoning to come to critical decisions.

1705132896

1705132897 思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132295]

1705132898 1.5 From Educational Debate to Generative Debate

1705132899

1705132900 The format of competitive, educational debate helps teachers, coaches, and judges teach students to debate. The format, however, embodies at least two qualities that have the potential to sidetrack debaters to become “winners” and “losers” rather than ethical, global citizens exerting their best skills and efforts toward contributing thoughtful insights or even solutions to critical, worldwide problems. The competitive nature of the activity encourages students to 1) choose a position and stick to it regardless of evidence presented by the other team and 2) debate primarily to win the decision from the adjudicator. A generative debate model does not restrict a debater in those ways.

1705132901

[ 上一页 ]  [ :1.705132852e+09 ]  [ 下一页 ]