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3.1.2 Arguments and Argumentation
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Argumentation can be defined as the process whereby an advocate uses arguments to advocate a position. During the process of argumentation, a person uses what are called arguments to communicate their views about the positions they advocate. Arguments includes specific claims, along with their supporting material, that a debater introduces during the process of argumentation. Specifically, when debaters want to convince an adjudicator to accept their side of an issue, they do so by engaging the process of argumentation, specifically by using arguments.
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The process of argumentation also includes other elements such as refutation, delivery, etc. The illustration below shows the argumentation process along with some other elements included in the process. Those other elements of the argumentation process will be discussed later.
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The fact that arguments constitute the basic tools of persuasion used in debate does not negate the usefulness of narrative, metaphor or other processes of persuasion. As the above illustration shows, narratives and metaphors can be a part of the argumentation process and, as will be discussed in later chapters, can be used as resources to support particular arguments. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the process that a debater engages to construct basic arguments when engaging in argumentation to convince an adjudicator of the wisdom of that debater’s position.
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3.2 Components of Arguments
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In subsequent chapters, this text will introduce four components of an argument. For the purposes of this chapter, those four components have been simplified and reduced to two components: a claim and supporting material. Fundamentally, an argument consists of a claim that is substantiated by some kind of supporting material: evidence, explanation, logic, another claim, etc. The following diagram illustrates that basic idea of an argument:
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A claim is the main point or thesis of your argument. Chapter 15 will identify several different kinds of claims. However, for the purposes of this chapter, a claim is any controversial statement that a debater uses to convince the adjudicator that his or her position is worthwhile. Examples include statements like “Capital punishment is immoral,” “China’s one-child policy is obsolete,” “A university education is unimportant,” etc. Each of these statements can become part of an argument.
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3.3 Kinds of Claims
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In Chapter 15, this text will differentiate four kinds of claims: descriptive, definitional, associational, and evaluative. Descriptive and definitional claims are about individual objects and concepts. A descriptive claim might state a way to look at a certain object or concept as it conforms to observed or observable reality. For instance, “Human development is best described by a process of evolution” is such a descriptive claim. A debater supporting this descriptive claim might argue that observation of the fossil record supports the idea that humans developed from other species. A definitional claim usually states that some word or group of words is an appropriate way to define an object or concept. For instance, “Members of ISIS (Islamic State in Syria and Iraq) are terrorists.” This definitional claim addresses the question of whether the word terrorist is appropriately applied to ISIS. The preceding kinds of claims are about how we describe and define certain objects and concepts. Associational claims are about how certain objects and concepts are related to one another. Among the most common kinds of associational claims are claims about relationships of cause and effect, similarity, and coexistence. A claim of cause and effect implies that one object or concept is the cause (or effect) of another. A claim of similarity suggests that two or more objects or concepts are similar (or dissimilar) to one another. A claim of coexistence states simply that two or more objects exist together in the same time and space. A claim of evaluation suggests that one or more objects or concepts possess some positive or negative value. Evaluative claims are the most common kinds of claims used in debate. As will be discussed later, descriptive, definitional, and associational claims are frequently used to support evaluative claims.
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Because they are the most common kinds of claims used in educational debate, this chapter will focus on claims of evaluation. Claims of evaluation frequently are of three types: claims that order values, claims that assign values to objects or concepts, and claims that evaluate policies or actions.
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Claims that order values typically state that one value is more important than another, for instance, “The value of community is more important than individualism.” This claim places the two values in a hierarchy so that when the two values come into conflict, one is considered more important than the other.
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Other evaluative claims assign values to objects or concepts, for instance, “China’s ancient culture was among the most enlightened in human history.” Rather than simply ordering values into a hierarchy, this kind of claim applies certain values to objects or concepts in such a way to suggest that the object is good or bad.
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The third kind of evaluative claim advocates that some action or policy should be undertaken. This claim is similar to assigning a value to an object or concept, but is specific to actions or policies. Thus, a claim of action or policy ordinarily says that some actor should engage in some action: A should do B. For instance, “Western countries should adopt the principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine.”
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Because evaluative claims are the most common, and, some may say, the most interesting, this chapter will focus exclusively on those kinds of claims. The next section will discuss two of the means by which evaluative claims are supported.
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3.4 Claims and Supporting Material
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To be an argument, the claim needs some kind of support. A statement without any kind of support is merely an assertion. When support for the claim is added to the claim itself, it becomes an argument. As stated earlier and as will be further developed in later chapters, many different kinds of materials can be used to support claims. In this chapter, a few examples are presented to clarify the ways that supporting material can be tied to a claim to create an argument.
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3.4.1 Claim Supported by Evidence
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The simplest way to think of an argument is that it involves a claim supported by evidence. Evidence is supporting material that has been observed or is potentially observable. The following diagram illustrates a claim supported by evidence:
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