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One of the first things to be aware of when delivering speeches in Worlds-Style debate is the audience. In Worlds-Style debate, the audience ordinarily includes the panel of adjudicators(judges) evaluating the debate. Although the audience may also include a number of other people who are listening to the debate, the adjudicators are an important part of the audience. Debaters should learn to speak to the panel of adjudicators without ignoring the other members of the audience. In addition to the fact that debaters will be evaluated directly by the panel of adjudicators, that panel is usually composed of individuals whose minds are most open to being convinced by arguments. A debater’s job is not to impress or convince the other debaters, or to use an inside joke that an observer might appreciate, or simply to look good. A debater’s job is to make sure that his or her arguments and speeches are clear and convincing to the panel of adjudicators whose role is to determine the outcome of the debate. The debater needs to focus on that panel, not only because they are the ones who award the points, but because they are also likely to be the most open to persuasion.
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The most common times when debaters forget their audience are during refutation and points of information. When addressing the arguments and points of information of the opposing team, debaters sometimes engage directly with their opponents. Remember, that a general reason for a debate is that an internal means of persuasion has failed and an external adjudicator is necessary. Thus, trying to re-engage the opponent is usually a mistake. Debaters will not convince their opponents that their arguments are better.
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Sometimes, debaters take refutation of their arguments personally. For instance, if another debater offers reasons that the justifications and evidence are flawed, the first debater may be tempted to argue: “Your point is not true,” or “Your point will lead to significantly worse outcomes.” However, debaters who remember that the audience is composed of adjudicators, not the opponents, will remember to address their arguments to the judges rather than to the debaters. For instance, instead of saying “Your point is not true,” a debater may instead say, “My opponent’s argument is not true.” Speaking directly to opponents makes it seem like the speaker is aiming to convince the opposition to defect to the speaker’s team, instead of aiming to convince the judges that the speaker’s arguments should prevail. During a point of information, remember to direct all points to the judge, whether the point is a question or the statement of an argument. The debater’s most important role is to ensure that the judge understands, considers, and believes their arguments. When answering a point of information, remember to focus attention on the judge; an answer will not convince the other side. The speaker’s primary role is to make the answer seem plausible and important to the panel of judges evaluating the debate.
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14.2.2 Extemporaneous Delivery
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In addition to recognizing and speaking to the appropriate audience, debaters should also practice an extemporaneous mode of speech delivery. Extemporaneous speaking involves preparing an outline, rather than a word-for-word manuscript. Outlines are designed to keep debaters organized and remind them what they are going to talk about, and should not contain the exact words that will be used in a speech. In Worlds-Style debate, debaters do not have time to write out a complete speech that responds to their opponents and addresses the changing needs of the argument situation. They have fifteen minutes to think of arguments, examples, and reasons. Since they do not have time to write the speech word-for-word, debaters need to learn how to prepare an outline of what they plan to talk about in the speech.
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Speaking from an outline sounds better than speaking from a manuscript because it sounds more conversational. Reading from a manuscript frequently sounds boring. Scripted speeches are focused more on the content and the wording of that content rather than on making sure the audience understands and is persuaded by the content. Speeches given from an outline allow debaters to speak in a more relaxed and personable way about things that they know. Experienced debaters usually sound more interesting because they vary their tone appropriately, like they do in everyday conversation.
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Extemporaneous speaking also allows more flexibility to adapt to the changing needs of the debate. If a debater is speaking from a manuscript, responding to a point of information or adding an explanation if a judge looks confused becomes more difficult. Worlds-Style debating requires that speakers be able to adjust to nonverbal feedback from the audience. Extemporaneous delivery enhances the skill of managing nonverbal feedback.
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14.2.3 Language Context
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When debaters speak to audiences who may have a different primary language, regional, or national background than the debater, the debater needs to speak to that audience in a way that can be understood by everyone. Especially in international debate events, debaters from one country will frequently find themselves debating before judges from other nations who have different primary languages. Whether speaking in the native language of debaters and judges from different regions or speaking in a foreign language to native and non-native speakers, debaters face a danger that an unfamiliar accent may stand in the way of the audience fully understanding their speech.
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The first thing debaters must do is to speak more slowly, especially at the beginning of the speech. Give the audience and fellow debaters time to adjust to a new accent, pronunciation, and choice of words. Speaking too quickly at the beginning of a speech can frustrate audiences and fellow debaters who really want to listen and understand, but are struggling. Pausing at the end of sentences and at the conclusion of ideas to allow audience members to process language and information with which they may be less familiar.
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A second thing a debater can do involves watching the audience. Do they seem to understand? Do they look confused? Are they taking notes about the speech? These nonverbal cues can help guide choices about rate of speaking during the debate. Finally, remember to enunciate. Debaters need to pay careful attention to the audience, especially when matters of language context may have the effect of interfering with the audience receiving and retaining the important parts of the message.
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Finally, remember that the most ethical debater will use delivery to communicate arguments not only to the adjudicators, but to the other debaters as well. Only an unethical debater would, for instance, use their language choices or their accent to communicate ideas with a judge that debaters from a different language context would not understand. For instance, an ethical debater from the United States debating before a judge from the United States should never speak rapidly in his or her United States accent in a way that might successfully communicate with the judge from the United States while excluding debaters from China. Delivery, like all elements of debate, should be used in the most ethical manner in order to be considered effective.
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14.3 Using the Body in Delivery
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Delivery is made up of multiple presentation channels. Everything a speaker does during, before, and after the speech, is part of delivery. This section explains how debaters can use their bodies to deliver an effective speech. Stance, eye contact, facial expressions, and gestures all contribute to the overall impression that a debater wants to give to the audience.
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14.3.1 Stance
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During the speech, a debater needs to convey confidence through the use of posture and stance. When called upon by the adjudicator to give a speech, stand up calmly and walk purposefully to the front of the room. Jumping up nervously or continuing to scribble notes conveys the impression that the speaker is anxious or not ready to speak. Similarly, when standing to offer a point of information, stand calmly, but purposefully; do not give the impression that, if the point is not accepted, everything is lost. Stand calmly as if to say, “Now is a good time to make that point I’ve been saving.”
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While speaking, debaters should stand with their feet planted, about shoulder-width apart. Having the feet planted means that the speaker should keep both feet on the floor with weight distributed constantly and evenly on both feet. In other words, debaters should not rock on their feet or shift their weight from foot to foot. Keeping the feet firmly planted communicates that the debater is taking a firm stance in terms of content. Shifting of weight or rocking makes a debater look uncomfortable about what he or she is saying. Similarly, pacing around the front of the room makes a debater look nervous as though he or she wants to leave the room. Remember to stand firmly with feet planted to avoid letting nervousness play out in speaking.
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Many rooms in which debaters are assigned to speak will not have a podium. In those cases, debaters need to find a comfortable way of speaking, even when they have to hold their notes in their hands. They should stand straight rather than bend over to look at notes placed on a low table or desk for at least three reasons. First, standing straight helps the audience hear the debater more easily because his or her voice is projected to the audience members rather than downward at the table. Second, speakers who are bent over cannot breathe from their diaphragm. Debaters will speak more comfortably and confidently if they have access to diaphragmatic breathing. Third, by standing up straight while speaking, debaters will look more credible than if they are hunched over papers on a table.
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14.3.2 Maintaining Eye Contact
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While norms of eye contact vary from culture to culture, debaters need to keep an eye on judges for a couple of reasons. First, looking at the judges helps debaters know what judges are writing and what they are not writing. Are they following the arguments that debaters are making? Are they lost? Some facial expressions and movements of judges can give a debater a lot of information about how to adjust his or her speech to the needs of the debate. Second, for many Western judges, eye contact is a sign of confidence and credibility, whereas, looking at notes or looking at the wall indicates that debaters are less sure of they are saying. Of course, debaters should not appear disrespectful to members of their audiences, so following cultural practices is the first order of importance for the speech. In most Asian cultures, extended, steady, or constant eye contact is considered rude and challenging. In these situations, brief and intermittent eye contact is preferred.
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14.3.3 Facial Expressions
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Facial expressions can help create sound emotional appeals and can make a speech more interesting. Debaters should try to match their expressions to what they are saying. Obviously, debaters should not exaggerate their expressions, but should let their feelings about what they are saying show on their faces. Debaters should think about what they want the audience to feel about the example they are using or the explanations they are making. Audiences frequently get cues for how speakers feel about their materials from the speaker’s facial expressions and vocal tone. Having facial expressions that reflect the emotional appeals of a debater’s speech will create a consistent message sent to the audience through multiple channels of speaking, and will increase the debater’s credibility.
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