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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132468]
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 Part FourElements of Argument and Argumentation
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The chapters in Part Four introduce some important features of argumentation in general. Those features of argumentation are important, not just to educational debate, but to all forms of argumentation that people encounter in society. The features are described in a basic model borrowed from Philosopher Stephen Toulmin created in 1958 (Uses of Argument) and later modified in 1988 in The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning. (Jonsen and Toulmin, 1988: 35) The basic model is so commonly recognized among argumentation teachers and writers that it is now simply referred to as the Toulmin Model of Argument.
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The modified Toulmin Model includes four elements and looks like this:
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In this text, the term data is replaced with evidence, warrant is replaced with link, and rebuttal is replaced with exception. All of these modifications in language are made for the sake of clarity. The concepts remain the same. Thus, the Toulmin Model as discussed in this text looks like this:
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The basic idea underlying the Toulmin Model is that an argument is constructed for the purpose of supporting a claim (and sometimes an exception). The claim, along with any possible exceptions, forms the fundamental thesis of the argument. The evidence consists of any material used to support the claim. The link is the part of the argument that shows the relationship between the evidence and the claim.
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Part Four begins with Chapters 15, 16, and 17 that describe the different elements of argument. Chapter 15 begins by describing claims and exceptions. Then, Chapter 16 describes the function and kinds of evidence. Chapter 17 describes several kinds of links and how they function. Thus, after reading Chapters 15, 16, and 17, a reader should have a basic foundation of the elements central to any argument.
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After discussing the individual elements, different relationships among the four arguments are described in Chapter 18. Chapter 18 describes various structures of argument and Chapter 19 discusses how arguers can structure their arguments around consequences and principles. Then, Chapter 20 shows how to combine different kinds of argument coherently. Finally, Chapter 21 discusses criteria that separate good arguments from poor ones, criteria commonly known as fallacies.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132469]
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 Chapter 15Elements of Argument: Claims and Exceptions
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Robert Trapp
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Chapter Outline
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15.1 Claims
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15.2 Exceptions
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15.3 Summary
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15.4 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 15
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15.5 Discussion Questions for Chapter 15
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15.6 Exercises for Chapter 5
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Debate is a process in which individuals exchange arguments about controversial topics. Debate could not exist without arguments. Arguments are the substance of debate. Of course, debates can include more than arguments. Some debates also include humor, stories, and appeals to emotion. In some unfortunate cases, debates may even include verbal aggression and threats. The aim of this text is to support substantive debate, focused primarily on argumentation.
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A description of argumentation should account for the elements of argument and how those elements relate to one another. The next three chapters will focus on four elements of argument: claims, evidence, links, and exceptions.1This chapter will consider claims and exceptions.
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Some beginning students of argumentation mistakenly believe that the elements of argument must be presented in a particular order. However, the arrangement of elements into a particular structure does not dictate the order in which each of the elements must be presented. Sometimes, presenting the claim and following it with supporting reasons and evidence is the most persuasive way to present an argument. At other times, an argument may be persuasively presented by starting with evidence then leading up to the claim. The following is a discussion of the structure of an argument, although not necessarily in the order in which the elements should be organized.