1705136028
Debate is a process in which individuals exchange arguments about controversial topics. Debate could not exist without arguments. Arguments are the substance of debate. Of course, debates can include more than arguments. Some debates also include humor, stories, and appeals to emotion. In some unfortunate cases, debates may even include verbal aggression and threats. The aim of this text is to support substantive debate, focused primarily on argumentation.
1705136029
1705136030
1705136031
1705136032
A description of argumentation should account for the elements of argument and how those elements relate to one another. The next three chapters will focus on four elements of argument: claims, evidence, links, and exceptions.1This chapter will consider claims and exceptions.
1705136033
1705136034
Some beginning students of argumentation mistakenly believe that the elements of argument must be presented in a particular order. However, the arrangement of elements into a particular structure does not dictate the order in which each of the elements must be presented. Sometimes, presenting the claim and following it with supporting reasons and evidence is the most persuasive way to present an argument. At other times, an argument may be persuasively presented by starting with evidence then leading up to the claim. The following is a discussion of the structure of an argument, although not necessarily in the order in which the elements should be organized.
1705136035
1705136036
思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132470]
1705136037
15.1 Claims
1705136038
1705136039
A claim is the main point or the thesis of an argument. A claim is based on or supported by explicit evidence.2 As people argue, they present evidence designed to persuade their audiences or judges to accept their claim. A claim can either be the conclusion that the debater wishes the audience or judge to accept, or it can be evidence for a subsequent claim.
1705136040
1705136041
Sometimes, a claim involves simply a movement from evidence to a conclusion, as illustrated in the following diagram:
1705136042
1705136043
1705136044
1705136045
1705136046
In this case, evidence is used to convince an audience to accept a claim; audience acceptance of the claim is the primary goal of the debater. An example of evidence being used to produce a claim is presented in the following diagram:
1705136047
1705136048
1705136049
1705136050
1705136051
Here, the claim that the debater wants the audience to accept is, “Smoking should be banned in public places.” That claim is supported by evidence suggesting “Second-hand smoke contributes to health problems for children.”
1705136052
1705136053
In other instances, claims are used to produce other claims. For example, evidence is used to produce Claim 1, then Claim 1is used to convince an audience or judge to accept yet another claim. Thus, Claim 1 produced by the evidence was not the debater’s ultimate goal. Here, Claim 2 is the ultimate goal, but Claim 1 was necessary to convince the audience of Claim 2. For example:
1705136054
1705136055
1705136056
1705136057
1705136058
The above example demonstrates how one piece of evidence can be used to produce one claim, and how that claim can be used to produce yet a second claim. Of course, many different combinations exist where claims are used to convince an audience of subsequent claims. The following is another example:
1705136059
1705136060
1705136061
1705136062
1705136063
In this example, evidence is used to produce Claim 1 and Claim 2. Then the two claims are used to convince the audience to accept Claim 3. Using an example of wireless cities can clarify how this combination of evidence and claims works:
1705136064
1705136065
1705136066
1705136067
1705136068
Three pieces of evidence about wireless cities are produced. One suggests that a wireless city would relieve traffic, a second that traffic relief and bill-paying are important to local government, and a third that wireless cities will simplify bill-paying. The combination of Evidence 1 and Evidence 2 are used to create Claim 1, that “Relieving traffic will improve management of local governments.” Then, the combination of Evidence 2 and Evidence 3 are used to produce Claim 2 that “Simplifying bill-paying process will improve management of local governments.” Then, Claims 1 and 2 lead to Claim 3 that “Wireless cities are desirable”—which is precisely the claim that the debater wants the audience to accept. To attain this goal, the arguer uses 3 pieces of evidence and 2 other claims in combination with one another. Therefore, from the perspective of the arguer, Claim 1 and Claim 2 are important only because they can be used to convince the audience to accept Claim 3.
1705136069
1705136070
Convincing an audience to accept a claim may be the ultimate objective of the debater, or, that objective may be to create a claim that is to be used to convince the audience of a subsequent claim. The process of combining claims to produce subsequent claims will be considered further in Chapter 20. Understanding that process requires understanding the different types of claims.
1705136071
1705136072
思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132471]
1705136073
15.1.1 Kinds of Claims
1705136074
1705136075
A number of authors writing about argumentation and debate have proposed various taxonomies of claims. The most traditional method of classifying claims is by classic categories of “fact,” “value,” and “policy.” David Zarefsky has added a fourth category of “definition” (Zarefsky, 2005). Bill Hill and Richard Leeman, while following the traditional categories of fact, value, and policy, subdivided fact into being, designation, and relationship. The viewpoint advocated here is not to accept or reject any particular category system, but rather to suggest that no single system is capable of providing a list of categories that are exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
1705136076
1705136077
Claims can be made about a nearly endless number of concepts. However, creating a taxonomy for discussing claims is important for a variety of reasons. One reason is that different kinds of claims require different kinds of support. Thus, a taxonomy that distinguishes different types of claims from one another allows students of argumentation and debate to learn how to support various types of claims. A second reason that taxonomies are useful is a functional one. As discussed earlier, claims can be combined to create other claims. As will be discussed in Chapter 20, certain types of claims can be created by a combination of other kinds of claims. Thus, a taxonomy of claims is useful because different kinds of claims require different kinds of support and because certain kinds of claims can be combined to produce other kinds of claims.