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The categories of “definition, description, and association,” as they are used in this text, correspond to Hill and Leeman’s category of “fact.” Hill and Leeman’s category of “fact” includes three subcategories: “being, designation, and relationship.” Hill and Leeman’s subcategory of “being” corresponds to this text’s category of “description.” When a debater describes an object, that description is frequently offered in terms of brute facts, especially when the object to be described is one that exists in the empirical world. Hill and Leeman (1996: 134) describe the subcategory of “being” as “concerned with whether an object of focus exists or whether an action occurred.”. Their “being” subcategory appears to be similar to what Searle called “brute” facts. Hill and Leeman’s subcategory of “designation,” seems similar to what Searle called “institutional” facts. In their words, designation involves “naming or classifying an object of focus” (Hill and Leeman, 1996: 135). Thus, Hill and Leeman’s category of “facts” corresponds to “definitions and descriptions” in the taxonomy used in this text. This text’s category of “association” is similar to Hill and Leeman’s subcategory of “relationship” although they exclusively discuss relationships of cause and effect. As they state, “Propositions of fact can address issues of relationship[emphasis mine]” (Hill and Leeman, 1996: 135). Hill and Leeman’s system does not explicitly include associations of similarity.
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Hill and Leeman’s (1996: 135) taxonomy contains a category called “value” which “generally posits some sort of evaluative judgment about the object of focus”. Therefore, their category of “value” corresponds to this text’s category of “evaluation,” specifically as to how values are sorted into hierarchies or how values are assigned to objects.
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Finally, Hill and Leeman (1996: 129) include a category they call “policy,” about which they assert, “that some type of action—policy—needs to be undertaken”. Their “policy” category is the same as a subcategory of our “evaluation” that is called, “evaluating policies and actions.”
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Since the system used in this text is so similar to the traditional taxonomy as presented by Hill and Leeman, some might question the need for a different taxonomy. Why not simply adopt the more traditional and well-known taxonomy? The answer to that question is that the category system used in this text is more than a taxonomy. It is a functional system that can be used to show how various forms of claims can be combined to create other kinds of claims. A complete answer to the question will be presented during the discussion of “combining claims coherently” in Chapter 20.
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15.2 Exceptions
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A question that no traditional debate texts consider is that of an exception. An exception is what Stephen Toulmin called a reservation. An exception allows the arguer to identify circumstances in which the claim does not hold. So, one might claim that in cases of divorce, the wife ought to have custody of the children except in cases where she is proven to be an incompetent parent. Another example might be that China should adopt an odd-even system for automobiles except for taxis.4 In both of those cases, exceptions allow the arguer to further define the circumstances under which the claim ought to be accepted. This is especially useful because an arguer who proactively describes his or her own exceptions will be more persuasive than an arguer who allows the opposing debater to point out the exceptions. Exceptions thus allow a debater to make the claim clear and focused.
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The following diagram illustrates the use of evidence to create a claim that contains an exception:
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Some exceptions are more appropriate than others. Appropriate exceptions are those that follow the implicit reasoning used in the original evidence-claim relationship. The exception mentioned above is a reasonable one, because the original evidence-claim relationship involves who is a good parent and, therefore, which parent ought to have custody of a child during a divorce. An inappropriate exception is one that simply tries to protect the claim from legitimate objections that are not a part of the original evidence-claim relationship. For instance, to claim that, in case of divorce, custody should be granted to the mother unless she is a member of a certain religion or minority group is less legitimate because being a member of such a group is not obviously related to whether or not she is a good parent.
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This chapter has discussed the idea of a claim that is sometimes combined with an exception. Claims are a fundamental element of an argument because they directly involve and articulate the point that the arguer is trying to debate. Exceptions provide the debater with an opportunity to focus and clarify the claim by identifying situations and circumstances when the debater does not support the claim, thereby strengthening the claim against the opponent’s refutation.
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15.3 Summary
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This chapter focused on the most basic element of any argument, the claim, along with any exceptions that might accompany that claim. The chapter briefly touched on the concept of evidence, which will be more fully explained in the next chapter. Evidence was considered here because it is the element of argument that is designed to support the claim. Without evidence, no claim can be persuasive.
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In this chapter, claims were divided into four categories: descriptive, definitional, associational, and evaluative. These four claims are the basic taxonomy of argumentative claims in this text, replacing the more familiar taxonomy of fact, value, and policy.
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本章节主要讲解了论证中最基本的要素——论点，以及可能伴随出现的论点中的特殊情况。此外，本章还简要介绍了论据的概念，下个章节会详细说明和解释这一概念。之所以在这里提及论据，是因为在论证过程中，论据是支持论点的重要一环。没有论据，论点不会有说服力。
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本章中，我们将论点分为四类：描述型、定义型、关联型和评价型。本书采用的论点基本分类方式正是这四类，而非大家更为熟悉的分类系统，即：事实型、价值型和措施型。
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15.4 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 15
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Check your memory and comprehension by describing or defining these key terms and concepts:
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· Claim
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· Exception
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· Evidence
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· Brute fact
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· Institutional fact
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· Association of cause and effect