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This chapter focused on the most basic element of any argument, the claim, along with any exceptions that might accompany that claim. The chapter briefly touched on the concept of evidence, which will be more fully explained in the next chapter. Evidence was considered here because it is the element of argument that is designed to support the claim. Without evidence, no claim can be persuasive.
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In this chapter, claims were divided into four categories: descriptive, definitional, associational, and evaluative. These four claims are the basic taxonomy of argumentative claims in this text, replacing the more familiar taxonomy of fact, value, and policy.
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本章节主要讲解了论证中最基本的要素——论点，以及可能伴随出现的论点中的特殊情况。此外，本章还简要介绍了论据的概念，下个章节会详细说明和解释这一概念。之所以在这里提及论据，是因为在论证过程中，论据是支持论点的重要一环。没有论据，论点不会有说服力。
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本章中，我们将论点分为四类：描述型、定义型、关联型和评价型。本书采用的论点基本分类方式正是这四类，而非大家更为熟悉的分类系统，即：事实型、价值型和措施型。
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15.4 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 15
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Check your memory and comprehension by describing or defining these key terms and concepts:
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· Claim
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· Exception
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· Evidence
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· Brute fact
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· Institutional fact
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· Association of cause and effect
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· Association of similarity
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· Claims that order values into a hierarchy
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· Claims that attach a value to an object
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· Claims that advocate a policy or an action
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15.5 Discussion Questions for Chapter 15
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· What is the basic evidence-claim relationship?
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· How can a claim be used as evidence for subsequent claims?
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· Can you briefly describe the four kinds of claims?
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· Why is taxonomy an important concept for argumentation?
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15.6 Exercises for Chapter 15
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· Exercise 1:
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