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· What are some criteria for determining whether or not a person is an authority who is adequate to use as evidence?
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· What are some criteria for determining the adequacy of an argument using generalization?
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· How can an analogy be used to support an argument of evaluation?
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· What are four methods of supporting a causal association?
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· What is the difference in using an argument by principle instead of an argument by consequence?
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· How might a debater go about supporting an argument by principle?
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· Why is an incompatibility a potential reason to evaluate an action in a positive or negative fashion?
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· How can dissociation be used to resolve an incompatibility?
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17.11 Exercise for Chapter 17
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· Starting with some claim discussed in Chapter 15 or some other claim you find interesting, support that claim using at least three different kinds of links.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 Chapter 18The Structure of Arguments
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Robert Trapp
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Chapter Outline
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18.1 Simple Arguments
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18.2 Combined Arguments
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18.3 Independent Arguments
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18.4 Summary
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18.5 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 18
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18.6 Discussion Questions for Chapter 18
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18.7 Exercise for Chapter 18
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Argumentation is the process whereby humans use reason to engage in critical decision-making. The focus on reason distinguishes argumentation from other modes of rhetoric and persuasion. When people use arguments to persuade, not only do they assert claims, they also assert reasons why they believe their claims are plausible or probable. Argumentation is a primary tool of debate, but it serves other activities as well. Argumentation is, for instance, an important tool in negotiation, conflict resolution, and persuasion. Some activities in which argumentation is used could still exist without argumentation as a central element. However, debate is an activity that could not exist without argumentation.
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Argumentation is important in activities like negotiation and conflict resolution because argumentation is the primary means that people use to help find ways to resolve their differences. But in some situations, differences cannot be resolved internally, and an outside adjudicator must be employed. Those situations involving outside adjudication are the most clear-cut examples of what we call debate. Sometimes debate occurs without the presence of an outside adjudicator, such as, in legislative debate, but the clearest instance of debate is one in which someone other than the participants themselves adjudicate the disagreement. According to that view, debate can be defined as a process of arguing about claims in situations where an adjudicator is usually called upon to decide the outcome of the dispute. Chapters 15, 16, and 17 discussed four elements of an argument: claims, evidence, links, and exceptions. This chapter will show how those elements are related to one another in what has become known as the “Toulmin Model” of argument.11The model is only a rough approximation of the four elements of argumentation and their relationships to one another. The model may not provide a complete or perfectly accurate description of actual arguments for a variety of reasons. First, the model describes only those elements of an argument related to reasoning. It does not describe other important elements such as expressions of feelings or emotions, unless those are directly related to reasoning. Second, the model describes only the linguistic elements of reasoning. It does not cover significant nonverbal elements of an argument. Despite those shortcomings, the model has proven itself useful for describing some of the key elements of arguments and how they function together.
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