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That particular argument suggests a claim that nations of the world should reduce their dependence on nuclear power. The claim is supported by two pieces of evidence both of which might come in the form of expert testimony. The first piece of evidence is that nuclear power is a dangerous alternative. Any astute debater would quickly notice that the first piece of evidence is not, by itself, sufficient to support the suggestion to reduce the use of nuclear energy, because so far, the argument has not suggested that safer, less dangerous alternatives exist. Thus, a necessary second piece of evidence, perhaps also in the form of testimony, is introduced: alternative sources of energy are less dangerous than nuclear power. Neither of the two pieces of evidence alone supports the claim. The claim is only supported when a debater successfully produces both pieces of evidence.
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Then, to fully support the claim, a link is added to suggest that safer alternatives should replace dangerous ones. The claim results from a combination of two pieces of evidence that are then linked to the claim. In some instances, the debater may not wish to hold to this claim in all circumstances. In those situations, the debater may suggest an exception such as the one presented in the illustration.
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The unique feature of the combined argument structure is that the arguer produces a collection of evidence that, if taken together, supports the claim. The structure of the argument is such that the audience must believe all of the evidence in order to support the argument. If the debater fails to convince the audience of even one piece of evidence, the entire argument structure falls. On the other hand, using the next argument structure—the independent argument—any single piece of evidence can provide sufficient support for the argument.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132502]
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18.3 Independent Arguments
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An arguer using an independent argument structure presents several pieces of evidence, any one of which provides sufficient support for the argument. In other words, a debater may present three pieces of evidence to support a claim and the members of the audience should accept the claim even if they are convinced only by a single piece of evidence. The following diagram illustrates the structure of an independent argument:
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The illustration presents three pieces of evidence that are independently joined to the claim by one or more links—hence, the name “independent argument.” Unlike the combined argument, the pieces of evidence are not joined by a plus (+) sign. The absence of the plus sign indicates that each piece of evidence can work, even without the others.
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An independent structure can be illustrated by using the nuclear power example:
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Using that example, a debater can make the claim that nuclear power is dangerous using three independent pieces of evidence, any one of which, properly argued, can be sufficient to support the claim. If nuclear power has a risk of accidents (the first piece of evidence), it is dangerous whether or not it creates waste or emits low-level radiation. Similarly, if nuclear energy produces dangerous waste (the second piece of evidence), it is dangerous even without the risk of accidents or low-level radiation. Additionally, if nuclear power emits low-level radiation (the third piece of evidence), it is dangerous even if it does not risk accidents or create waste. Thus, the three pieces of evidence operate independently of one another.
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Of course, each of the pieces of evidence must be connected to the claim using a link as suggested in the illustration. Although it does not contain an exception, it is easy to imagine how one might be introduced into the argument. The advantage of the independent argument structure is obvious. With combined structures, the loss of one piece of evidence endangers the entire argument, whereas, with the independent structure, the argument can prevail even if only one of the pieces of evidence survives.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132503]
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18.4 Summary
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The previous three chapters described the individual elements of an argument: claim, exception, evidence and link. This chapter went a step further to describe how those individual elements are related to one another to form various argument structures. Although the Toulmin Model was originally illustrated using only a simple argument consisting of a single piece of evidence, a claim and a link, this chapter has illustrated how the model can be used to illustrate other kinds of argument structures, as well. A combined argument structure joins two or more pieces of evidence to support a claim. In a combined argument, all of the different pieces of evidence are necessary to provide convincing support for the claim. An independent argument structure includes two or more pieces of evidence to produce a claim that can be supported by any one of the pieces of evidence.
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The Toulmin Model is useful because it illustrates the various parts of an argument and shows how they function together as a whole. Modifications of that argument structure, illustrating combined and independent arguments, make it even more useful.
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前面三个章节中，我们介绍了论证的一些基本要素：论点、论点中的特殊情况、论据及论点和论据间的连接。本章更详细地阐述了这些基本要素是如何紧密相连，继而组成不同的论证结构的。虽然图尔明模型最开始被定义为仅有一个论据、论点和连接部分的单一论证方法，本章介绍了基于该模型的其他论证结构。联合式论证结构包含了两个或两个以上的论据，它们联合起来才能支持论点，所有论据都是支撑论点的必要条件。独立型论证中，论点由两个或两个以上的论据所支持，其中的每个论据都能够单独佐证该论点。
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图尔明模型在辩论中是非常有用的。它不仅展现了论证过程中的不同环节，也展现了它们是如何结合在一起的。改动该论证结构，即加入联合式论证和独立型论证，让该模型变得更加实用。
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132504]
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18.5 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 18
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Check your memory and comprehension by describing or defining these key terms and concepts:
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· Simple argument
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· Combined argument
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· Independent argument
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