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18.4 Summary
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The previous three chapters described the individual elements of an argument: claim, exception, evidence and link. This chapter went a step further to describe how those individual elements are related to one another to form various argument structures. Although the Toulmin Model was originally illustrated using only a simple argument consisting of a single piece of evidence, a claim and a link, this chapter has illustrated how the model can be used to illustrate other kinds of argument structures, as well. A combined argument structure joins two or more pieces of evidence to support a claim. In a combined argument, all of the different pieces of evidence are necessary to provide convincing support for the claim. An independent argument structure includes two or more pieces of evidence to produce a claim that can be supported by any one of the pieces of evidence.
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The Toulmin Model is useful because it illustrates the various parts of an argument and shows how they function together as a whole. Modifications of that argument structure, illustrating combined and independent arguments, make it even more useful.
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前面三个章节中，我们介绍了论证的一些基本要素：论点、论点中的特殊情况、论据及论点和论据间的连接。本章更详细地阐述了这些基本要素是如何紧密相连，继而组成不同的论证结构的。虽然图尔明模型最开始被定义为仅有一个论据、论点和连接部分的单一论证方法，本章介绍了基于该模型的其他论证结构。联合式论证结构包含了两个或两个以上的论据，它们联合起来才能支持论点，所有论据都是支撑论点的必要条件。独立型论证中，论点由两个或两个以上的论据所支持，其中的每个论据都能够单独佐证该论点。
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图尔明模型在辩论中是非常有用的。它不仅展现了论证过程中的不同环节，也展现了它们是如何结合在一起的。改动该论证结构，即加入联合式论证和独立型论证，让该模型变得更加实用。
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18.5 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 18
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Check your memory and comprehension by describing or defining these key terms and concepts:
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· Simple argument
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· Combined argument
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· Independent argument
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18.6 Discussion Questions for Chapter 18
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· Why is a series of independent arguments likely to be more effective than a combined argument?
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· Can an independent argument be thought of as multiple simple arguments? Why?
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18.7 Exercise for Chapter 18
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· Start with one of the motions used in this text. Construct at least three arguments in support of that motion. One of the arguments should follow the “simple argument” structure; one should follow the “combined argument” structure; and the other should be an “independent argument.”
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 Chapter 19Argumentation, Consequences, and Principles
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Robert Trapp
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Chapter Outline
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19.1 Evaluation Based on Consequences of Action
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19.2 Evaluation Based on Principles of Duties and Rights
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19.3 Summary
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