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1705136854 ·Sub-argument 2:

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1705136856 The Government Team’s proposal substantially changes the policies of the current system.

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1705136858 ￭ The current policies of nations of Sub-Saharan Africa provide insufficient funding and infrastructure to education.

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1705136860 ￭ The Government Team’s model provides both funding and infrastructure.

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1705136862 ￭ Funding and infrastructure are essential for access to education.

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1705136864 ·Sub-argument 3:

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1705136866 The Government Team’s proposal fulfills the duty of government and the right of citizens.

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1705136868 ￭ Providing access to education fulfills the government’s duty.

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1705136870 ￭ Gaining access to education provides for the rights of citizens.

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1705136872 The argument illustrated above is an argument of principle designed to support a primary claim that all governments have the duty to provide an education for all of their citizens. As explained above, the argument combines three sub-claims. The first is designed to show that the principle, rights, or duties are legitimate. The debater would need to explain why access to education is a right of all citizens. One possible way to do this would be to point to Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that declares, “Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.”

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1705136874 Having established that access to education is a fundamental right of all citizens, the debater would explain why providing access to education is a duty of the government. The debater might support this argument by showing how the duty to provide access to education is a part of some larger agreed-upon duty, such as the duty to protect the general welfare. Having established that access to education is a fundamental principle; the second sub-argument describes the current and proposed policies and relates those features to important elements of the principle. In the above example, the Government Team might show how funding and infrastructure that is lacking in the current system is provided in their proposed policy. Then they might show how that funding and infrastructure is relevant to access to education, always being careful to provide clear and solid evidence, reasoning, and explanation. Finally, the third sub-argument would show how the Government Team’s proposed policy fulfills the principle described in the first sub-argument. In this case, they would argue that access to education fulfills the government’s duty as it provides for the rights of citizens. Thus, the example demonstrates how an argument of principle can be used to construct a claim of policy.

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1705136876 思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132510]

1705136877 19.3 Summary

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1705136879 This chapter has concentrated on making arguments to support evaluative claims. Two argumentative methods, consequences and principles, have been the focus of the discussion. As discussed earlier, the argument by consequence is drawn from the philosophical position of utilitarianism, and the argument by principle is consistent with the philosophical tradition called deontology. Both of those philosophies are respected positions, although each has its critics as well as proponents.

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1705136881 Both consequential and principled arguments are legitimate choices for debaters seeking to construct arguments of evaluation. Much if not most of the time, debaters will be able to construct both consequential and principled arguments that lead to the same conclusion—that a certain policy or action should be positively (or negatively) evaluated. As debaters advance in their theoretical and practical understanding of debate, those kinds of arguments will become more and more useful.

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1705136883 本章主要介绍了评价型论点的两种立论方法：根据结果或原则立论。之前我们提过，结果立论法的哲学基础是功利主义；而原则立论法则基于义务论。尽管各自有支持者与反对者，这两种哲学立论都有其重要地位。

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1705136885 在构建评价型论证的时候，结果型或原则型立论法都是不错的选择。通常，辩手们会同时采用两种立论法证明自己的观点。随着辩论理论和实践经验的丰富，这些立论方式将会变得越来越有用。

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1705136887 思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132511]

1705136888 19.4 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 19

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1705136890 Check your memory and comprehension by describing or defining these key terms and concepts:

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1705136892 · Utilitarianism

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1705136894 · Deontology

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1705136896 思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132512]

1705136897 19.5 Discussion Questions for Chapter 19

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1705136899 · How can the descriptive, associational, and evaluative pattern be used to make an argument of consequence?

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1705136901 · How can one use an argument about coexistence and essence to support the idea that a certain principle is a good one?

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