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20.4 Summary
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Previous sections in this chapter have focused on how individual arguments are structured. This chapter has focused on how arguments are combined with one another to create yet another argument, and particularly, on the means by which sub-claims are combined to support a primary claim. The basic pattern described in this chapter shows how descriptive, associational, and evaluative sub-claims can be combined to create claims of value and of policy. The basic pattern has been shown to be useful when applied to both consequential and principled arguments.
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One of the purposes of this chapter is to provide students with a basic pattern for combining arguments that will help them learn to combine a series of sub-claims so that those sub-claims provide coherent support for a primary claim. Creating such combinations is useful in creating arguments that support or oppose various motions in debate.
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之前，我们关注了每一个独立的论点是如何被论证的，而这章则重点关注各个论点之间是如何相互联系、成就另一个论点的，尤其是，各个分论点是如何结合起来支持中心论点的。这章介绍了运用描述、关联和评价型分论点相结合的方法来论证价值类和措施类论点的模式。这种模式在结果型和原则型论证时都非常有用。
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本章所介绍的用以连接各个分论点的一般方法，有助于辩手们将各分论点有机而连贯地结合起来，更好地支持自己的中心论点。无论是作为辩论中的正方还是反方，这种方法都是非常有用的。
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20.5 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 20
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Check your memory and comprehension by describing or defining these key terms and concepts:
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· Describe, associate, evaluate pattern
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· Association using causal arguments
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· Association using arguments of similarity
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20.6 Discussion Questions for Chapter 20
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· How can a principle be supported using an argument by analogy? Can you think of other ways to support a principle?
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· Are the methods of combining claims using consequences significantly different from combining claims using principles?
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· Are the ways of combining claims for a motion about value significantly different from combining claims about policy? If so, how?
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20.7 Exercise for Chapter 20
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· Take any of the motions used earlier in the text. Construct at least one consequential argument for the motion and another against the motion. Then construct at least one principled argument for the motion and another against the motion. In each case, follow the describe, associate, evaluate pattern.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 Chapter 21The Quality of Arguments: Fallacies in Argumentation
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Robert Trapp
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Chapter Outline
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21.1 Criteria for Logical Assessment of Arguments
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21.2 Three Basic Fallacies
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