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· Begging the question
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· Fallacy of incompatibility
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· Fallacy of irrelevant reason
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· Argument ad hominem
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· Argument of straw
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· Red herring fallacy
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· Hasty conclusions
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· Hasty generalization
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· Slippery slope arguments
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21.5 Discussion Questions for Chapter 21
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· How are the three criteria contained in the Johnson and Blair Model of Argument Cogency related to the overall structure of an argument?
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· Describe the three standards for argument acceptability.
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· Compare and contrast the standards of relevance and sufficiency.
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· What is the relationship between the absence or presence of fallacies and the cogency of arguments? Does the absence of a fallacy mean the argument is correct? Does the presence of a fallacy mean the argument is incorrect?
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21.6 Exercise for Chapter 21
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· Starting with any of the arguments presented in this text, analyze the arguments for how well they meet the three criteria continued in the Johnson and Blair Model of Argument Cogency. What specific fallacies, if any, do the arguments contain?
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Notes
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1 These four elements emerge from the work of philosopher Stephen Toulmin who initially generated six elements of argument in his book, The Uses of Argument. (1958) Toulmin has since revisited and refined his model, most recently publishing a revised version with Albert R. Jonsen The Abuse of Casuistry. (1988) This chapter will describe those same four elements except that, for the sake of simplicity, it will use different titles to describe them. The names used in this text to describe the four elements are claim, evidence, link, and exception.
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2 The concept of evidence will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 16, however it will be introduced in this chapter because it is essential to explaining how a claim functions.
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3 In a sense, all claims involve associating one thing to another. Descriptions associate a thing with our experience of the thing; definitions associate a word with a concept or a thing; and evaluations associate something with a value. However, this category of claims is subtly different because it is used to explain different methods of associating one concept with another.
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4 The odd-even system adopted in Beijing during the 2008 Olympic Games mandated that automobiles with licenses ending in odd numbers could be driven only on odd numbered dates and that those with licenses ending in even numbers could be driven only on even numbered dates. An exception was made for taxis.
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5 The category system adopted here closely follows Olbrechts-Tyteca, Lucie and Chaim Perelman, only making slight changes to the names of some of their categories to make them work better for common usage. Although changed substantially, the discussions in this chapter follow the author’s treatment of evidence in an earlier work called Discovering the World Through Debate: A practical guide to educational debate for debaters, coaches and judges. (Trapp, Robert, William Driscoll, Jurate Motiejunaite, and Joseph P. Zompetti. New York: IDEA Press, 2005.)
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6 More will be said about how to construct an adequate argument by example in Chapter 21 on fallacies.
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7 Actually, even indifference can in some cases be an expression of value—that something does not even merit discussion or consideration.
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