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21.5 Discussion Questions for Chapter 21
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· How are the three criteria contained in the Johnson and Blair Model of Argument Cogency related to the overall structure of an argument?
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· Describe the three standards for argument acceptability.
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· Compare and contrast the standards of relevance and sufficiency.
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· What is the relationship between the absence or presence of fallacies and the cogency of arguments? Does the absence of a fallacy mean the argument is correct? Does the presence of a fallacy mean the argument is incorrect?
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21.6 Exercise for Chapter 21
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· Starting with any of the arguments presented in this text, analyze the arguments for how well they meet the three criteria continued in the Johnson and Blair Model of Argument Cogency. What specific fallacies, if any, do the arguments contain?
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Notes
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1 These four elements emerge from the work of philosopher Stephen Toulmin who initially generated six elements of argument in his book, The Uses of Argument. (1958) Toulmin has since revisited and refined his model, most recently publishing a revised version with Albert R. Jonsen The Abuse of Casuistry. (1988) This chapter will describe those same four elements except that, for the sake of simplicity, it will use different titles to describe them. The names used in this text to describe the four elements are claim, evidence, link, and exception.
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2 The concept of evidence will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 16, however it will be introduced in this chapter because it is essential to explaining how a claim functions.
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3 In a sense, all claims involve associating one thing to another. Descriptions associate a thing with our experience of the thing; definitions associate a word with a concept or a thing; and evaluations associate something with a value. However, this category of claims is subtly different because it is used to explain different methods of associating one concept with another.
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4 The odd-even system adopted in Beijing during the 2008 Olympic Games mandated that automobiles with licenses ending in odd numbers could be driven only on odd numbered dates and that those with licenses ending in even numbers could be driven only on even numbered dates. An exception was made for taxis.
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5 The category system adopted here closely follows Olbrechts-Tyteca, Lucie and Chaim Perelman, only making slight changes to the names of some of their categories to make them work better for common usage. Although changed substantially, the discussions in this chapter follow the author’s treatment of evidence in an earlier work called Discovering the World Through Debate: A practical guide to educational debate for debaters, coaches and judges. (Trapp, Robert, William Driscoll, Jurate Motiejunaite, and Joseph P. Zompetti. New York: IDEA Press, 2005.)
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6 More will be said about how to construct an adequate argument by example in Chapter 21 on fallacies.
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7 Actually, even indifference can in some cases be an expression of value—that something does not even merit discussion or consideration.
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8 The original term that Stephen Toulmin used was “warrant.” This text uses the simpler and more direct term, “link.”
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9 Links are so central that they sometimes define the nature of the argument itself. Links are described by the phrase “argument by.” Eg. “argument by generalization,” “argument by analogy,” etc.
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10 The reference to “slam dunk” comes from the sport of basketball. When a player is left virtually alone on the court with the ball, the player may forcefully “dunk” the ball into the basket, hence, “slam dunk.”
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11 As stated earlier, Toulmin’s terms are changed slightly in this text for purposes of clarity. He used the terms “claim, data, warrant, and reservation,” whereas, this text uses the terms “claim, evidence, link, and exception.”
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12 The first person to write about utilitarianism was Jeremy Bentha. (Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. London: Clarendon Press, 1789.) A more recent description of utilitarianism can be found in Sandel, Michael and Justice, J. What’s the Right Thing to Do. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009: 31-57.
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13 Perhaps an East Asian audience would be more likely to positively evaluate the Viet Cong (Vietnamese who fought against the Americans in the “Great American War”) whereas a European or North American audience might positively evaluate American Revolutionary War Soldiers.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 Part FiveTeaching and Coaching Debate
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Debate coaches are primarily teachers. They teach their own students during practice sessions and sometimes in classes; when the teacher-coach attends a tournament with his or her students, he or she will be a judge at the tournament. An effective teacher-coach, first and foremost, must be familiar with the principles of debate. One can become an excellent teacher even if he or she is not an outstanding debater and even if he or she did not participate in debate at all. So, the first things that a teacher-coach needs to do are to carefully review the materials in the first four parts of this text and review other books about argumentation and debating. Only then will the teacher-coach be able to impart these principles to his or her students.
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