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奇怪的是,正是方济各会修士们把牛仔文化带到了现在的得克萨斯和加利福尼亚,因为动物脂肪和兽皮是布道团运输到墨西哥其他地方唯一有利可图的产品。由于劳动力不足,修士们无视西班牙禁止印第安人骑马的法律,将新信徒训练成牧人。当加利福尼亚总督抱怨此种做法时,一位修士回应道:“那么布道团中牧人的工作怎样才能完成呢?”事实上,美洲的第一批牛仔是印第安人。[21]
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18世纪末,虽然西班牙的牧场技术正逐渐占据主导地位,但是北方人发现他们自己面临着来自北部和东部的双重威胁。北方有了新的欧裔美洲人邻居以及在人力和资源方面都具有优势的竞争文化。第一个挑战来自新法兰西。新法兰西位于密西西比河谷尽头的新奥尔良,分布在一个以法兰西国王路易十四的名字命名的辽阔地区。在路易斯安那东北部有一个不稳固的民族联盟。这一联盟刚刚脱离不列颠赢得了独立——一个四分五裂、人口众多,自称美利坚合众国的独立实体。
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[1] 然而,就文化而言,几个世纪之前,圣奥古斯丁被南方腹地吞并。
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[2] John H.Burns,“The Present Status of the Spanish-Americans of New Mexico,” Social Forces ,December 1949,pp.133-138.
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[3] Charles C.Mann,1491:New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus ,New York:Knopf,2005,pp.102-103.
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[4] Alan Taylor,American Colonies:The Settling of North America ,New York:Penguin,2001,p.53-54;Mann,pp.102-103.
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[5] Mann(2005),pp.140-141;Taylor(2001),p.57.
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[6] Thomas Campanella,A Discourse Touching the Spanish Monarchy [1598],London:William Prynne,1659,pp.9,223.
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[7] David J.Weber,The Mexican Frontier,1821-1846 ,Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,1982,p.232;David J.Weber,The Spanish Frontier in North America ,New Haven,CT:Yale University Press,1992,p.322.
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[8] Taylor(2001),pp.460-461;Weber(1992),pp.306-308;Weber(1982),pp.45-46.
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[9] Taylor(2001),p.61.
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[10] James D.Kornwolf and Georgiana Kornwolf,Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America,Vol.1 ,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University,2002,pp.122,140;Robert E.Wright,“Spanish Missions,” in Handbook of Texas Online at http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/SS/its2.html.
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[11] Weber(1992),p.306;Jean Francois Galaup de La Perouse(1786)as quoted in James J.Rawls,“The California Mission as Symbol and Myth,” California History ,Fall 1992,p.344.
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[12] Russell K.Skowronek,“Sifting the Evidence:Perceptions of Life at the Ohlone(Costanoan)Missions of Alta California,” Ethnohistory ,Fall 1998,pp.697-699.
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[13] Weber(1982),pp.123-124,279.
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[14] Weber(1992),pp.15,324.
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[15] Clark S.Knowlton,“Patron-Peon Pattern among the Spanish Americans of New Mexico,” Social Forces ,October 1962,pp.12-17;Gastil(1975),p.249.
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[16] Phillips(1969),pp.282-283;Andrew Gumbel,Steal This Vote:Dirty Elections and the Rotten History of Democracy in America ,New York:Nation Books,2005,pp.17-22.
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[17] Weber(1982),pp.243,284;Martinez(1988),pp.107-111.
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[18] Taylor(2001),pp.82,458-460;Paul Horgan,Great River:The Rio Grande in North American History ,Vol.Ⅰ,New York:Holt,Rinehart & Winston,1954,pp.225-226;Weber(1982),pp.92,123.
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[19] Weber(1992),pp.326-328;Manuel G.Gonzalez,Mexicanos:A History of Mexicans in the United States ,Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1999,p.53;Martinez(1988),p.107.
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[20] Edward Larocque Tinker,“The Horsemen of the Americas,” Hispanic American Historical Review ,May 1962,p.191;Odie B.Faulk,“Ranching in Spanish Texas,” Hispanic American Historical Review ,May 1965,pp.257,166;C.Allan Jones,Texas Roots:Agricultural and Rural Life Before the Civil War ,College Station:Texas A&M University,2005,pp.12-16;Peter Tamony,“The Ten-Gallon or Texas Hat,” Western Folklore ,April 1965,pp.116-117.
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[21] Hubert Howe Bancroft,The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft ,Vol.19,San Francisco:The History Company,1886,p.162;C.Wayne Hanselka and D.E.Kilgore,“The Nueces Valley:The Cradle of the Western Livestock Industry,” Rangelands ,October 1987,p.196.
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