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44 Slow movement into New England: Bragdon 1996
:57-58 (salt marshes, 1000 B.C.); Wilkie and Tager eds. 1991
:10-11 (maps of distribution through time of known paleo-Indian archaeological sites); Fagan 2000
:101-04 (low carrying capacity of postglacial areas); Petersen 2004. On a continental scale, the New England indigenous groups were so small that one conscientious continental survey doesn’t even mention them (Fagan 1991).
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44 Patchwork environment: Cronon 1983
:19-33 (“tremendous variety,”31).
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44 词源统计分析法：20世纪60年代，美国语言学家莫里斯· 斯沃德什发明了词源统计分析法。斯沃德什是一个有争议的人物；他在麦卡锡时代因其政见而付出了护照的代价，之后长年在墨西哥工作。词源统计分析法是他死后出版的杰作《语言的起源和多元化》的主题。这种分析法试图探明两种语言是在多久以前从一个共同祖先那里分裂出来的，就像法语和意大利语是从拉丁语中分裂出来的一样。为了做到这一点，斯沃德什拟定了一份由一百个基本词汇，诸如“耳朵”、“母亲”、“呕吐”等等组成的清单。斯沃德什认为，当两种语言紧密相关的时候，它们的这些词汇就会彼此相似。例如，“耳朵”一词在法语中是oreille，在意大利语中是orecchio，其相似度足以表明，这两种语言是在相对近期才分离开来的。斯沃德什宣称，其清单上每千年会有14%的词汇产生变化。因此，如果某两种语言在斯沃德什清单的100个词汇里有79个相似，那么可以认为，它们是大约1 500年前从一个共同祖先那里分裂出来的。不足为奇的是，斯沃德什的观点遭到了批判。尤其不合情理的是那种认为语言变化是以放之四海而皆准的恒速进行的观念。尽管如此，研究人员还是会使用词源统计分析法，这一方面是因为缺乏其它选择，另一方面是因为它的基本观点在直观上是正确的（Swadesh 1971, 1952; Hymes 1971, 1960
:5-6）。
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44 Glottochronological analysis of Algonquian languages: Fiedel 1987; Goddard 1978; Mulholland 1985.
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45 Coastal diet: Little and Schoeninger 1995; Kavasch 1994.
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46 Description of Patuxet: Author’s visit; James ed. 1963
:7 (“Pleasant for air,”alewives), 75-76; Winslow 1963b
:8-43; Anon. ed. 1963
:xx-xxi (map of area in 1613 by Champlain). In these years big areas alongthe coastline had neatly planted maize fields, traces of which survived even into the twentieth century (Delabarre and Wilder 1920
:210-14).
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47 2 500 calories/day: Bennett 1955
:table 1; Braudel 1981-84 （ol.1)
:129-45 (European calorie levels).
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48 Indian and European views on children: Kupperman 2000
:153-56; Williams 1936
:29 (spoiling); Denys 1908
:404; Ariés 1962 (European views).
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48 Character, training, and pniese: Salisbury 1989
:229-31;Wood 977
:91-94 [ “He that speaks,”91; “Beat them,”93（I have modernized“winch,”an obsolete form of“flinch” )]; Winslow 1624
:55-56; James ed.1963
:77; Kittredge ed. 1913
:151, quoted in Axtell 1981
:44.
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49 Sachems: Wood 1977
:97-99; Winslow 1624
:56-60; Gookin 1792
:154-55; Salisbury 1982
:42-43; Dunford 2001
:32-37; Johnson 1993
:chap. 3. To the north, sachems were called sagamores, a distinction I am ignoring.
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49 没那么血腥的原住民战事：Hariot 1588
:36-37; Williams 1936
:188（“远不及”）; Hirsch 1988; Kupperman 2000
:106-09; Russell 1980
:187-94; Vaughan 1995
:37-41。威廉姆斯（Williams）观察到，低伤亡的原因之一是印第安人作战时“跳跃、舞蹈（甚多），弓箭极少射中目标。”（人们显然得益于平日里箭术对决的游戏。）一些活动人士称，剥头皮其实是白人殖民者的发明。但在佛罗里达以北地区尚未创建任何殖民地的十六世纪三十年代和四十年代，就已有欧洲访客目睹了这一风俗。詹姆斯·阿克斯特尔（James Axtell）观察到，“绞刑、开膛破肚、斩首、英式车裂”等诸般刑罚均常见于欧洲，而剥头皮则不在其列。每个大陆都有着不同的残害肢体的刑罚，究竟是哪一种刑罚更恶劣“几乎没有什么讨论价值”（Axtell 1980
:463）。
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50 Early European exploration: Some of the vast literature includes Kupperman 1997a; Bourque and Whitehead 1994; Quinn 1974
:chap. 1; Salisbury 1982
:51-54; Axtell 1994
:154-55 (Corte-Real).
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51 作为首个到访者的韦拉扎诺：在其畅销著作《1421年：中国人发现世界》中，曾担任英国海军军官的加文·孟席斯认为，由太监郑和率领的庞大舰队于1421年从中国启航驶向美洲。舰队在加勒比海里损失了很多船只后，不得不把“数千男性和姬妾”留在了罗得岛上。随后的舰队本应将他们接上，但促成郑和下西洋的永乐皇帝逝世了，而其继任者对环游世界没有兴趣。这些搁浅在当地的中国人融入了当地群体之中。韦拉扎诺注意到，罗得岛的印第安人比其他印第安人更为“俊美”，而这在孟席斯看来，就是他们并非印第安人的证据。这幅500英尺长的中国大船搁浅在新英格兰地区的图景太过迷人，以至于我不得不很遗憾地报告说，除了孟席斯本人以外，很少有研究人员相信这一点（Menzies 2003
:281-96; 291）。
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51 Verrazzano’s account: Wroth ed. 1970
:71-90, 133-43“densely populated,”137; “little bells,”138;“irksome clamor,”139;“showing,”“barbarous,”140); Axtell 1992
:156-57.
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51 Indians’ physical appearance: Gookin 1792
:152-53 (“one part,”153); Higginson 1792
:123; Morton 1632
:32 (“as proper”); Wood 1977
:82-83 (“more amiable,”82,“torture,”83); Russell 1980
:30-32. See also the drawings of Algonquians further south by John White (Hulton 1984). Differences between colonial and native ways of treating the body are explored in Kupperman 2000
:chap. 2 (bow string, 55-56), and Axtell 2000
:154-58.
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53 Popularity of Indian hairstyles: Kupperman 1997b
:225 (“lovelocks”); Higginson 1792
:123.
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53 Indian views of Europeans
:Jaenen 2000 (weak, 76; ugly, 77; sexually untrust-worthy, 83; Micmac, 85; dirty, handkerchiefs, 87); Axtell 1988; Stannard 1992
:5 (Indian cleanliness). As a rule, only wealthy Europeans bathed—commoners wiped themselves with rags when they could.
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54 Two hundred British ships: Cell 1965.
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54 Champlain’s exploration: Biggar ed. 1922-36 (vol.1)
:349-55, 397-401. See also, Salisbury 1982
:62-66, and the enjoyable Parkman 1983（vol.1)
:191-93, 199.
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