打字猴:1.706316732e+09
1706316732
1706316733 268 临时指定:譬如,在《奥尔梅克人的世界》一书中,伯纳尔从未直接认定奥尔梅克人发明了数字零。他不过是在描绘长纪年历之余评论道,该历法“必然意味着(奥尔梅克人)掌握了关于零的知识”(Bernal 1969:114)。
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1706316735 269 More than a dozen systems of writing: Coe 1976a:110ff. Coe lists thirteen forms, but does not include Olmec and whatever is on the Tlatilco seals.
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1706316737 270 Deciphered Olmec stela: Stuart 1993a, 1993b; Justeson and Kaufman 1993; 1997; 2001 (Chiapas potsherd translation, 286).
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1706316739 271 Monte Albán dispute: I have borrowed the formulation in Zeitlin 1990. Some argue that not enough data exist to resolve the question (O’Brien and Lewarch 1992).
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1706316741 271 Slabs as slain enemies: Marcus 1983:106-08,355-60.
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1706316743 271 Fight with Tilcajete: Spencer and Redmond 200l.
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1706316745 273 Nudzahui marriage politics: Spores 1974.
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1706316747 273 8-Deer’s story: Pohl 2002; Byland and Pohl 1994:119-60, 241-44; Caso 1977-79 (vo1. 1):69-83, (vol.2):169-84; Smith 1962.; Clark 1912.
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1706316749 275 Wheeled toys: Stirling 1940b:310-11, 314; Charnay 1967:178-86.
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1706316751 276 Egypt and wheel: Wright )2005:46.
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1706316753 277 铧犁:Temple 1998(“如此低效”,16)。感谢迪克·特雷西(Dick Teresi)告诉我关于这本书和这个范例的信息(“就像亨利·福特”:e-mail,Teresi to author)。
1706316754
1706316755 277 Lack of relation between technology and social complexity: I lift this point bodily from Webster 2002:77. See also Ihde 2000.
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1706316757 279 Osmore Valley geography: I am grateful to Mike Moseley and Susan DeFrance for guiding me through this area, and to Patrick Ryan Williams and Donna Nash for showing me Moquegua and Cerro Baúl.
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1706316759 279 瓦里和蒂亚瓦纳科:La Lone 2000提供了简要的概述。关于瓦里的著作惊人地有限。Isbell and McEwan eds. 1991和Schreiber 1992属于近期出版的少数几部相关著述。在蒂亚瓦纳科这个议题上,被引述最广的文献是Kolata 1993和Kolata ed. 1996-2003。威廉·伊斯贝尔(William Isbell)曾指出,这两个名称同时适用于同名的城镇、国家以及宗教。他提议用西班牙名称Tiahuanaco和Huari来代指这两处遗迹,而用艾马拉语与Runa Simi的拼写方式Tiwanaku和Wari来代指两个政体的政治与文化风格(Isbell 2001:457)。
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1706316761 279 十六世纪的气候灾难:Fagan 1999:Chap.7。最明显的主要受害者是莫奇人,他们在公元100年后涌入了北部海岸,沿一处300英里长的条状地区居住。旱灾使莫奇陷入危机;厄尔尼诺现象和暴雨引发的洪水摧毁了整座整座的村庄和运河系统。厄尔尼诺还改变了洋流的模式,使河流沉积物在海岸上沉淀下来。它们很快变成了沙丘,风把沙丘吹向安第斯地区,并对农地形成威胁。莫奇人试图卷土重来,但未能成功。
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1706316763 280 Potato’s advantages and status vis-a-vis maize: McNeill 1991, Murra 1960.
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1706316765 281 瓦里宗教:应该强调的是,棍神的常见形象并不意味着这位神祗在每个文化中都有相同的含义(Makowski 2001)。
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1706316767 281 梯田、耕地、弃耕:秘鲁生态学家路易斯·马森(Luis Masson)估算认为,当地人仅在安第斯山脉的西部地区就开垦出了120万到140万英亩农地,而其中75%的土地如今已遭废弃(私人交流,见Denevan 2001:173-75的引述);Cobo 1990:213(“铺满了楼梯”);Moseley 2001:230-38(“申请和推广”,233;瓦里在恶劣气候的侵袭下依然繁荣,232)。
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1706316769 283 Isbell-Vranich article: Isbell and Vranich 2004 (“repetitive,”170).
1706316770
1706316771 283 Wari and Tiwanaku in Cerro Baúl: Interviews, DeFrance, Moseley, Nash, Williams; Williams, Isla, and Nash 2001.
1706316772
1706316773 283 Geertz’s four states: Geertz 1980:121-22.
1706316774
1706316775 284 Chiripa: The major recent work on Chiripa is described in Hastorf 1999. A summary is Stanish 2003:115-17.
1706316776
1706316777 285 普卡拉:Stanish 2003:138-48,156-60,283-84。斯塔尼什(Stanish)认为,一场始于公元100年左右的旱灾有可能促发了普卡拉的衰亡(157)。但这场旱灾也有可能从未发生过——人们是从一次对的的喀喀湖底沉积物的研究而推断或许曾爆发过旱灾的(Abbott et al. 1997)。但正如这些作者所评论的那样,湖泊沉积物的数据与此前冰岩芯研究的发现有所冲突;此外,人们对沉积过程的理解依然十分贫乏,因此无法判定被假定存在的干旱期的始末年代。
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1706316779 285 Rise of Tiwanaku: Stanish 2003:chap. 8,2001.
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1706316781 285 Tiwanaku as predatory state: Kolata 1993:81-86, 243-52 (“predatory,”243; “lower cost,”245).
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