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Christopher Stevenson写的关于集约农业和石块护根法的论文集有Archaeological Investigations on Easter Island;Maunga Tari:An Upland Agriculture Complex(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 1995);以及与Joan Wozniak、Sonia Haoa共合作发表的“Prehistoric agriculture production on Easter Island(Rapa Nui), Chile”(Antiquity 73:801-812(1999));与Thegn Ladefoged、Sonia Haoa合作发表的“Productive strategies in an uncertain environment:prehistoric agriculture on Easter Island”(Rapa Nui Journal 16:17-22(2002))。Christopher Stevenson写的“Territorial divisions on Easter Island in the 16th century:evidence from the distribution of ceremonial architecture”被收录于T.Ladefoged和M.Graves共同编辑的Pacific Landscapes(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 2002), pp.213-229,这篇论文重建了复活节岛上11个传统部落的地盘界线。
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Dale Lightfoot的“Morphology and ecology of lithic-mulch agriculture”(Geographical Review 84:172-185(1994))和Carleton White等人发表的“Water conservation through an Anasazi gardening technique”(New Mexico Journal of Science 38:251-278(1998)),这两篇论文列出证据表明世界其他地区也使用石块护根法。Andreas Mieth与Hans-Rudolf Bork合作发表的“Diminution and degradation of environmental resources by prehistoric land use on Poike Peninsula, Easter Island(Rapa Nui)”(Rapa Nui Journal 17:34-41(2003))探讨了珀伊克半岛上滥伐森林及土壤侵蚀的情况。Karsten Haase等人发表的“The petrogenetic evolution of lavas from Easter Island and neighboring seamounts, near-ridge hotspot volcanoes in the S.E.Pacific”(Journal of Petrology 38:785-813(1997))对复活节岛火山的形成年代和化学成分进行了分析。Erika Hagelberg等人发表的“DNA from ancient Easter Islanders”(Nature 369:25-26(1994))对12个复活节岛民的骨骸做了DNA分析报告。James Brander和M.Scott Taylor共同发表的论文“The simple economics of Easter Island:a Ricardo-Malthus model of renewable resource use”(American Economic Review 38:119-138(1998))则是从经济学的角度来分析复活节岛资源过度开发的情形。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第三章
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第二章补充阅读提供的波利尼西亚聚落形成的文献资料已经涵盖东南波利尼西亚聚落。Tim Benton和Tom Spencer 合作编辑了The Pitcairn Islands:Biogeography, Ecology, and Prehistory(London:Academic Press, 1995),内含1991—1992年间科学家们在皮特凯恩岛、汉德森岛及奥埃诺和杜西环礁考察研究的结果。该书有27个章节,涉及这些群岛的地理、植物、鸟类(包括在汉德森岛灭绝的鸟类)、鱼类、陆地和海洋的无脊椎动物,以及人类对当地生态环境造成的影响。
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本书使用的波利尼西亚族群在皮特凯恩岛和汉德森岛定居和离弃的资料大部分来自Marshall Weisler与其同事的研究成果。在上文提到的Tim Benton和Tom Spencer编辑的论文集里,其中一个章节就是Weisler对自己研究成果的一个概述:“Henderson Island prehistory:colonization and extinction on a remote Polynesian island”(pp.377-404)。此外,他又撰写了两篇综合报告:“The settlement of marginal Polynesia:new evidence from Henderson Island”(Journal of Field Archaeology 21:83-102(1994)),和“An archaeological survey of Mangareva:implications for regional settlement models and interaction studies”(Man and Culture and Oceania 12:61-85(1996))。此外,Weisler又写了四篇论文用以解释如何对当地发现的玄武岩手斧进行化学分析,从而能弄清玄武岩的出处,也有助于了解当时的贸易路线。这四篇论文分别是:与D.Whitehead合作发表的“Provenance studies of Polynesian basalt adzes material:a review and suggestions for improving regional databases”(Asian Perspectives 32:61-83(1993));“Basalt pb isotope analysis and the prehistoric settlement of Polynesia”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 92:1881-1885(1995));以及与Patrick V.Kirch合作发表的“Interisland and interarchipelago transfer of stone tools in prehistoric Polynesia”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 93:1381-1385(1996));“Hard evidence for prehistoric interaction in Polynesia”(Current Anthropology 39:521-532(1998))。探讨波利尼西亚东部与东南贸易网络的论文有 Marshall Weisler与R.C.Green合作发表的“Holistic approaches to interaction studies:a Polynesian example”(pp.413-453);Martin Jones与Peter Sheppard编辑的Australasian Connections and New Directions(Auckland, N.Z.:Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, 2001);R.C.Green和Marshall Weisler的“The Mangarevan sequence and dating of the geographic expansion into Southeast Polynesia”(Asian Perspectives 41: 213-241(2002));以及Marshall Weisler的“Centrality and the collapse of long-distance voyaging in East Polynesia”(pp.257-273),这篇论文被收录于Michael D.Glascock编辑的Geochemical Evidence for Long-Distance Exchange(London:Bergin and Garvey, 2002)。关于汉德森岛上的农作物和骨骸可见下列三篇论文:Jon G.Hather与Marshall Weisler的“Prehistoric giant swamp taro(Cyrtosperma chamissionis)from Henderson Island, Southeast Polynesia”(Pacific Science 54:149-156(2000));Sara Collins和Marshall Weisler的“Human dental and skeletal remains from Henderson Island, Southeast Polynesia”(People and Culture in Oceania 16:67-85(2000));以及Vincent Stefan、Sara Collins和Marshall Weisler合作发表的“Henderson Island crania and their implication for southeastern Polynesian prehistory”(Journal of the Polynesian Society 111:371-383(2002))。
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对皮特凯恩岛和汉德森岛感兴趣或是喜欢看精彩故事的人一定不能错过Charles Nordhoff与James Norman Hall合写的小说Pitcairn’s Island(Boston:Little, Brown, 1934)。这本小说用写实的手法重现了叛舰喋血记中叛变者们如何控制船舰,驱逐船长与其亲信,然后来到皮特凯恩岛自相残杀的故事。该事件的真实情况可参阅Caroline Alexander写的The Bounty(New York:Viking, 2003)。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第四章
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坊间有大量的书籍讲述美国西南部的史前史以供大众阅读,有的还有彩色插图。比如Robert Lister与Florence Lister合著的Chaco Canyon(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1981)、Stephen Lekson的Great Pueblo Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1986)、William Ferguson和Arthur Rohn合著的Anasazi Ruins of the Southwest in Color(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1987)、Linda Cordell的Ancient Pueblo Peoples(Montreal:St.Remy Press, 1994)、Stephen Plog的Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1997)、Linda Cordell的Archaeology of the Soutwest, 2nd ed.(San Diego:Academic Press, 1997),以及David Stuart的Anasazi America(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 2000)。
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还有三本介绍明布雷斯彩陶光辉史的图书也不可错过:J.J.Brod的Mimbres Painted Pottery(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 1997);Steven LeBlanc的The Mimbres People:Ancient Pueblo Painters of the American Southwest(London:Thames and Hudson, 1983);以及Tony Berlant、Steven LeBlanc、Catherine Scott和J.J.Brod合著的Mimbres Pottery:Ancient Art of the American Southwest(New York:Hudson Hills Press, 1983)。
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有关阿纳萨兹人和其邻近部落间的战争与暴力的详细描述可以参阅下列三部专著:Christy Turner Ⅱ与Jacqueline Turner合著的Man Corn:Cannibalism and Violence in the Prehistoric American Southwest(Salt Lake City:University of Utah Press, 1999);Steven LeBlanc的Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest(Salt Lake City:University of Utah Press, 1999);以及Jonathan Haas与Winifred Creamer合著的Stress and Warfare Among the Kayenta Anasazi of the Thirteenth Century A.D.(Chicago:Field Museum of Natural History, 1993)。
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关于美国西南族群的论文和学术著作有Paul Minnis的Social Adaptation to Food Stress:A Prehistoric Southwestern Example(Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1985);W.H.Wills的Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 1988);R.Gwinn Vivian的The Chacoan Prehistory of the San Juan Basin(San Diego:Academic Press, 1990);Lynne Sebastian的The Chaco Anasazi:Sociopolitical Evolution and the Prehistoric Southwest(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992);以及Charles Redman的People of the Tonto Rim:Archaeology Discovery in Prehistoric Arizona(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993)。Eric Force、R.Gwinn Vivian、Thomas Windes和Jeffrey Dean四人在他们的论文Relation of“Bonito”Paleo-channel and Base-level Variations to Anasazi Occupation, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico(Tucson:Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, 2002)中重新评价了河道下蚀对查科峡谷水位下降的影响。所有和林鼠贝冢相关的资料你都可以从Julio Betancourt、Thomas Van Devender和Paul Martin合著的Packrat Middens(Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 1990)一书中获得。
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不少论文集收录许多专家写的关于美国西南部的文章,如David Grant Nobel编辑的New Light on Chaco Canyon(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 1984);George Gumerman编辑的The Anasazi in a Changing Environment(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988);Patricia Crown与W.James Judge共同编辑的Chaco and Hohokam:Prehistoric Regional Systems in the American Southwest(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 1991);David Doyel编辑的Anasazi Regional Organization and the Chaco System(Albuquerque:Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, 1992);Michael Adler编辑的The Prehistoric Pueblo World A.D. 1150-1350(Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 1996);Jill Neitzel编辑的Great Towns and Regional Polities in the Prehistoric American Southwest and Southeast(Dragoon, Ariz.:Amerind Foundation, 1999);Michelle Hegmon编辑的The Archaeology of Regional Interaction:Religion, Warfare, and Exchange Across the American Southwest and Beyond(Boulder:University Press of Colorado, 2000);以及Michael Diehl与Steven LeBlanc的Early Pithous Villages of the Mimbres Valley and Beyond(Cambridge, Mass.:Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 2001)。
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本书引用的参考书目可作为撰写美国西南部研究论文的路标,与本章有关的几篇论文在此将单独列出。Julio Betancourt与其同事共同发表的论文能使我们了解古代查科峡谷的植被,如Julio Bctuncourl和Thomas Van Devender合作发表的“Holocene vegetation in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico”(Science 214:656-658(1981));Michael Samuels和Julio Betancourt的“Modeling the long-term effects of fuelwood harvests on pinyon-juniper woodlands”(Environmental Management 6:505-515(1982));以及Julio Betancourt、Jeffrey Dean和Herbert Hull合作发表的“Prehistoric long-distance transport of construction beams, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico”(American Antiquity 51:370-375(1986))。下面两篇论文涉及的在不同时期,阿纳萨兹木头使用的变化:Timothy Kohler和Meredith Matthews合作发表的“Long-term Anasazi land use and forest production:a case study of Southwest Colorado”(American Antiquity 53:537-564(1988))、Thomas Windes和Dabney Ford合写的“The Chaco wood project:the chronometric reappraisal of Pueblo Bonito”(Amercian Antiquity 61:295-310(1996))。William Bull在他的论文“Discontinuous ephemeral streams”(Geomorphology 19:227-276(1997))中对于河床下切的复杂成因提出了很好的见解。关于利用锶的同位素来辨别查科峡谷的木材和玉米具体来自哪个地区,有两篇论文可供参阅。木材方面的研究见Nathan English、Julio Betancourt、Jeffrey Dean与Jay Quade合作发表的“Strontium isotopes reveal distant sources of architectural timber in Chaco Canyon,New Mexico”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 98:11891-11896(2001));玉米方面的研究见Larry Benson等人发表的“Ancient maize from Chacoan great houses:where was it grown?”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 100:13111-13115(2003))。R.L.Axtell等人在他们的论文“Population growth and collapse in a multiagent model of the Kayenta Anasazi in Long House Valley”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 99:7275-7279(2002))详细描述了生活在长屋谷一带的卡彦塔阿纳萨兹人的人口总数和可能采用的农业方式。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第五章
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针对马雅文明的陨落,三本新出版的书提出了各自不同的看法:David Webster的The Fall of the Ancient Maya(New York: Thames and Hudson, 2002)、Richardson Gill的The Great Maya Droughts(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 2000)以及Arthur Demerest、Prudence Rice和Don Rice一起编辑的The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands(Boulder:University Press of Colorado, 2004)。Webster综合概括了马雅社会的历史,从人口和资源分配的角度解释了马雅崩溃的原因;Gill则把重点放在气候变化上,认为是旱灾引起了马雅的崩溃;而Demerest等人则强调各遗址间错综复杂的差异,对于生态方面的变因很少关注。关于这些方面的早期讨论见T.Patrick Culbert编辑的The Classic Maya Collapse(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1973)以及T.Patrick Culbert 和D.S.Rice合编的Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1990)。David Lentz编辑的Imperfect Balance:Landscape Transformation in the Precolumbian Americas(New York:Columbia University Press, 2000)一书中有好几个章节涉及马雅的崩溃,还探讨了其他相关族群,如生活在霍霍凯姆、安第斯山和密西西比地区的印第安人,本书对他们也略有提及。
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有些书还总结了马雅地区某些特定城市的兴衰。如David Webster、Ann Corinne Freter和Nancy Gonlin合著的Copán:The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Maya Kingdom(Fort Worth:Harcourt Brace, 2000);Peter Harrison的The Lords of Tikal(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999);Stephen Houston的Hieroglyphs and History at Dos Pilas(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1993);以及M.R.Dunning 的Lords of the Hills:Ancient Maya Settlement in the Puuc Region, Yucatán, Mexico(Madison, Wis.:Prehistory Press, 1992)。关于马雅历史和社会的书籍(没有专门探讨崩溃问题)可参见Michael Coe的The Maya, 6th ed.(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999);Simon Martin 和Nikolai Grube 的Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens(New York:Thames and Hudson, 2000);Robert Sharer的The Ancient Maya(Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1994);Linda Schele与David Freidel合著的A Forest of Kings(New York:William Morrow, 1990);以及Linda Schele和Mary Miller的The Blood of Kings(New York:Braziller, 1986)。
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John Stephens将自己的发现写在两本经典作品中:一本是Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan(New York:Harper, 1841);还有一本是Incidents of Travel in Yucatan(New York:Harper, 1843)。这两本书都由Dover Publication 重印。Victor Wolfgang von Hagen 在Maya Explorer(Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1984)一书中介绍了John Stephens的一生及其伟大的发现。
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B.L.Turner Ⅱ在马雅集约化农业和人口方面出版了不少论文和书籍。它们有“Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Mayan lowlands”(Science 185:118-124(1974));他与Peter Harrison共同发表的“Prehistoric raised-field agriculture in the Maya lowlands”(Science 213:399-405(1981));他们两人还合写了Pulltrouser Swamp:Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1983);Thomas Whitmore与B.L.Turner Ⅱ合作发表了“Landscapes of cultivation in Mesoamerica on the eve of the conquest”(Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82:402-425(1992));以及B.L.Turner Ⅱ和K.W.Butzer合作发表的论文“The Columbian encounter and land-use change”(Environment 43:16-20 and 37-44(1992))。
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最近发表的以湖芯研究作为马雅崩溃与干旱有关的证据的论文有Mark Brenner 等人写的“Paleolimnology of the Maya lowlands:long-term perspectives on interactions among climate, environment, and humans”(Ancient Mesoamerica 13:141-157(2002))(同期值得关注的论文见pp.79-170 和 263-345);David Hodell 等人发表的 “Solar forcing of drought frequency in the Maya lowlands”(Science 292:1367-1370(2001));Jason Curtis等人发表的“Climate variability of the Yucatán Peninsula(Mexico)during the past 3500 years,and implications for Maya cultural evolution”(Quaternary Research 46:37-47(1996));以及David Hodell 等人合写的“Possible role of climate in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization”(Nature 375:391-394(1995))。这些科学家专门在佩滕地区进行湖芯研究以了解干旱的影响,相关论文见Michael Rosenmeier写的“A 4000-year lacustrine record of environmental change in the southern Maya lowlands, Petén, Guatemala”(Quaternary Research 57:183-190(2002));以及Jason Curtis等人发表的“A multi-proxy study of Holocene environmental change in the Maya lowlands of Petén, Guatemala”(Journal of Paleolimnology 19:139-159(1998))。此外,Gerald Haug等人发表的“Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization”(Science 299:1731-1735(2003))也可供读者参考,文中科学家们通过对被河流冲积到海洋的沉积物进行分析,以了解每年雨量的变化。
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