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还有三本介绍明布雷斯彩陶光辉史的图书也不可错过:J.J.Brod的Mimbres Painted Pottery(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 1997);Steven LeBlanc的The Mimbres People:Ancient Pueblo Painters of the American Southwest(London:Thames and Hudson, 1983);以及Tony Berlant、Steven LeBlanc、Catherine Scott和J.J.Brod合著的Mimbres Pottery:Ancient Art of the American Southwest(New York:Hudson Hills Press, 1983)。
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有关阿纳萨兹人和其邻近部落间的战争与暴力的详细描述可以参阅下列三部专著:Christy Turner Ⅱ与Jacqueline Turner合著的Man Corn:Cannibalism and Violence in the Prehistoric American Southwest(Salt Lake City:University of Utah Press, 1999);Steven LeBlanc的Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest(Salt Lake City:University of Utah Press, 1999);以及Jonathan Haas与Winifred Creamer合著的Stress and Warfare Among the Kayenta Anasazi of the Thirteenth Century A.D.(Chicago:Field Museum of Natural History, 1993)。
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关于美国西南族群的论文和学术著作有Paul Minnis的Social Adaptation to Food Stress:A Prehistoric Southwestern Example(Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1985);W.H.Wills的Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 1988);R.Gwinn Vivian的The Chacoan Prehistory of the San Juan Basin(San Diego:Academic Press, 1990);Lynne Sebastian的The Chaco Anasazi:Sociopolitical Evolution and the Prehistoric Southwest(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992);以及Charles Redman的People of the Tonto Rim:Archaeology Discovery in Prehistoric Arizona(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993)。Eric Force、R.Gwinn Vivian、Thomas Windes和Jeffrey Dean四人在他们的论文Relation of“Bonito”Paleo-channel and Base-level Variations to Anasazi Occupation, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico(Tucson:Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, 2002)中重新评价了河道下蚀对查科峡谷水位下降的影响。所有和林鼠贝冢相关的资料你都可以从Julio Betancourt、Thomas Van Devender和Paul Martin合著的Packrat Middens(Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 1990)一书中获得。
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不少论文集收录许多专家写的关于美国西南部的文章,如David Grant Nobel编辑的New Light on Chaco Canyon(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 1984);George Gumerman编辑的The Anasazi in a Changing Environment(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988);Patricia Crown与W.James Judge共同编辑的Chaco and Hohokam:Prehistoric Regional Systems in the American Southwest(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 1991);David Doyel编辑的Anasazi Regional Organization and the Chaco System(Albuquerque:Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, 1992);Michael Adler编辑的The Prehistoric Pueblo World A.D. 1150-1350(Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 1996);Jill Neitzel编辑的Great Towns and Regional Polities in the Prehistoric American Southwest and Southeast(Dragoon, Ariz.:Amerind Foundation, 1999);Michelle Hegmon编辑的The Archaeology of Regional Interaction:Religion, Warfare, and Exchange Across the American Southwest and Beyond(Boulder:University Press of Colorado, 2000);以及Michael Diehl与Steven LeBlanc的Early Pithous Villages of the Mimbres Valley and Beyond(Cambridge, Mass.:Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 2001)。
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本书引用的参考书目可作为撰写美国西南部研究论文的路标,与本章有关的几篇论文在此将单独列出。Julio Betancourt与其同事共同发表的论文能使我们了解古代查科峡谷的植被,如Julio Bctuncourl和Thomas Van Devender合作发表的“Holocene vegetation in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico”(Science 214:656-658(1981));Michael Samuels和Julio Betancourt的“Modeling the long-term effects of fuelwood harvests on pinyon-juniper woodlands”(Environmental Management 6:505-515(1982));以及Julio Betancourt、Jeffrey Dean和Herbert Hull合作发表的“Prehistoric long-distance transport of construction beams, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico”(American Antiquity 51:370-375(1986))。下面两篇论文涉及的在不同时期,阿纳萨兹木头使用的变化:Timothy Kohler和Meredith Matthews合作发表的“Long-term Anasazi land use and forest production:a case study of Southwest Colorado”(American Antiquity 53:537-564(1988))、Thomas Windes和Dabney Ford合写的“The Chaco wood project:the chronometric reappraisal of Pueblo Bonito”(Amercian Antiquity 61:295-310(1996))。William Bull在他的论文“Discontinuous ephemeral streams”(Geomorphology 19:227-276(1997))中对于河床下切的复杂成因提出了很好的见解。关于利用锶的同位素来辨别查科峡谷的木材和玉米具体来自哪个地区,有两篇论文可供参阅。木材方面的研究见Nathan English、Julio Betancourt、Jeffrey Dean与Jay Quade合作发表的“Strontium isotopes reveal distant sources of architectural timber in Chaco Canyon,New Mexico”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 98:11891-11896(2001));玉米方面的研究见Larry Benson等人发表的“Ancient maize from Chacoan great houses:where was it grown?”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 100:13111-13115(2003))。R.L.Axtell等人在他们的论文“Population growth and collapse in a multiagent model of the Kayenta Anasazi in Long House Valley”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 99:7275-7279(2002))详细描述了生活在长屋谷一带的卡彦塔阿纳萨兹人的人口总数和可能采用的农业方式。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第五章
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针对马雅文明的陨落,三本新出版的书提出了各自不同的看法:David Webster的The Fall of the Ancient Maya(New York: Thames and Hudson, 2002)、Richardson Gill的The Great Maya Droughts(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 2000)以及Arthur Demerest、Prudence Rice和Don Rice一起编辑的The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands(Boulder:University Press of Colorado, 2004)。Webster综合概括了马雅社会的历史,从人口和资源分配的角度解释了马雅崩溃的原因;Gill则把重点放在气候变化上,认为是旱灾引起了马雅的崩溃;而Demerest等人则强调各遗址间错综复杂的差异,对于生态方面的变因很少关注。关于这些方面的早期讨论见T.Patrick Culbert编辑的The Classic Maya Collapse(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1973)以及T.Patrick Culbert 和D.S.Rice合编的Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1990)。David Lentz编辑的Imperfect Balance:Landscape Transformation in the Precolumbian Americas(New York:Columbia University Press, 2000)一书中有好几个章节涉及马雅的崩溃,还探讨了其他相关族群,如生活在霍霍凯姆、安第斯山和密西西比地区的印第安人,本书对他们也略有提及。
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有些书还总结了马雅地区某些特定城市的兴衰。如David Webster、Ann Corinne Freter和Nancy Gonlin合著的Copán:The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Maya Kingdom(Fort Worth:Harcourt Brace, 2000);Peter Harrison的The Lords of Tikal(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999);Stephen Houston的Hieroglyphs and History at Dos Pilas(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1993);以及M.R.Dunning 的Lords of the Hills:Ancient Maya Settlement in the Puuc Region, Yucatán, Mexico(Madison, Wis.:Prehistory Press, 1992)。关于马雅历史和社会的书籍(没有专门探讨崩溃问题)可参见Michael Coe的The Maya, 6th ed.(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999);Simon Martin 和Nikolai Grube 的Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens(New York:Thames and Hudson, 2000);Robert Sharer的The Ancient Maya(Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1994);Linda Schele与David Freidel合著的A Forest of Kings(New York:William Morrow, 1990);以及Linda Schele和Mary Miller的The Blood of Kings(New York:Braziller, 1986)。
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John Stephens将自己的发现写在两本经典作品中:一本是Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan(New York:Harper, 1841);还有一本是Incidents of Travel in Yucatan(New York:Harper, 1843)。这两本书都由Dover Publication 重印。Victor Wolfgang von Hagen 在Maya Explorer(Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1984)一书中介绍了John Stephens的一生及其伟大的发现。
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B.L.Turner Ⅱ在马雅集约化农业和人口方面出版了不少论文和书籍。它们有“Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Mayan lowlands”(Science 185:118-124(1974));他与Peter Harrison共同发表的“Prehistoric raised-field agriculture in the Maya lowlands”(Science 213:399-405(1981));他们两人还合写了Pulltrouser Swamp:Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1983);Thomas Whitmore与B.L.Turner Ⅱ合作发表了“Landscapes of cultivation in Mesoamerica on the eve of the conquest”(Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82:402-425(1992));以及B.L.Turner Ⅱ和K.W.Butzer合作发表的论文“The Columbian encounter and land-use change”(Environment 43:16-20 and 37-44(1992))。
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最近发表的以湖芯研究作为马雅崩溃与干旱有关的证据的论文有Mark Brenner 等人写的“Paleolimnology of the Maya lowlands:long-term perspectives on interactions among climate, environment, and humans”(Ancient Mesoamerica 13:141-157(2002))(同期值得关注的论文见pp.79-170 和 263-345);David Hodell 等人发表的 “Solar forcing of drought frequency in the Maya lowlands”(Science 292:1367-1370(2001));Jason Curtis等人发表的“Climate variability of the Yucatán Peninsula(Mexico)during the past 3500 years,and implications for Maya cultural evolution”(Quaternary Research 46:37-47(1996));以及David Hodell 等人合写的“Possible role of climate in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization”(Nature 375:391-394(1995))。这些科学家专门在佩滕地区进行湖芯研究以了解干旱的影响,相关论文见Michael Rosenmeier写的“A 4000-year lacustrine record of environmental change in the southern Maya lowlands, Petén, Guatemala”(Quaternary Research 57:183-190(2002));以及Jason Curtis等人发表的“A multi-proxy study of Holocene environmental change in the Maya lowlands of Petén, Guatemala”(Journal of Paleolimnology 19:139-159(1998))。此外,Gerald Haug等人发表的“Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization”(Science 299:1731-1735(2003))也可供读者参考,文中科学家们通过对被河流冲积到海洋的沉积物进行分析,以了解每年雨量的变化。
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对马雅文明感兴趣的读者请勿错过Mary Ellen Miller写的The Murals of Bonampak(Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 1986),书中收录了很多壁画的图片,有黑白,也有彩色,还有酷刑的画面。Justin Kerr写的介绍马雅陶器的一系列书The Maya Vase Book(New York:Kerr Associates, various dates)也值得推荐。破解马雅文字的过程精彩纷呈,相关书籍有Michael Coe的Breaking the Maya Code,2nd ed.(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999)以及Stephen Houston、Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazareigos和David Stuart合著的The Decipherment of Ancient Maya Writing(Norman:University of Oklahoma, 2001)。关于提卡尔的蓄水池,可参看下列文章:Vernon Scarborough与Gari Gallopin写的“A water storage adaptation in the Maya lowlands”(Science 251:658-662(1991));Lisa Lucero在其论文“The collapse of the Classic Maya:a case for the role of water control”(American Anthropologist 104:814-826(2002))中提出马雅各地区可用水量的差异导致马雅古典时期城市间崩溃时间的不同;Arturo Gómez-Pompa、JoséSalvador Flores和Victoria Sosa在他们的论文“The‘pet kot’:a man-made tropical forest of the Maya”(Interciencia 12:10-15(1987))中对马雅人培育有用树种进行了研究分析。Timothy Beach的研究报告“Soil catenas,tropical deforestation, and ancient and contemporary soil erosion in the Petén, Guatemala”(Physical Geography 19:378-405(1998))表现了马雅有些地区利用梯田来改善水土流失的情况。Richard Hansen等人写的“Climatic and environmental variability in the rise of Maya civilization:a preliminary perspective from northern Petén,”(Ancient Mesoamerica 13:273-295(2002))一文用跨学科的研究方式对前古典时期人口稠密的地区进行分析,并证明石灰生产与森林砍伐之间的关系。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第六章至第八章
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William Fitzhugh 与Elisabeth Ward共同编辑的Vikings:The North Atlanta Saga(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000)内含许多彩色插图,全书共有31章,详细地介绍了维京社会、维京人在欧洲的扩张及维京人在北大西洋建立的殖民地。若要简明版的,可参阅Eric Christiansen写的The Norsemen in the Viking Age(Oxford:Blackwell, 2002)及F.Donald Logan写的The Vikings in History, 2nd ed.(New York:Routledge, 1991),还有Else Roestahl写的The Vikings(New York:Penguin, 1987)。Gwyn Jones的Vikings:The North Atlantic Saga, 2nd ed.(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1986)以及G.J.Marcus的The Conquest of the North Atlantic(New York:Oxford University Press, 1981)则把焦点放在维京人在冰岛、格陵兰岛和文兰等北大西洋殖民地的发展情况。Jones在书中还收录了维京英雄们传奇故事的英译,其中有冰岛人之书、文兰英雄传奇和Einar Sokkason的故事。
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关于冰岛历史,最近出版的两本书值得一看。一本是Jesse Byock的Viking Age Iceland(New York:Penguin Putnam, 2001), 这本书是以他以前写的Medieval Iceland:Society, Sagas, and Present(Berkeley:University of California Press, 1988)一书为基础写就的,对冰岛的介绍止于邦联时期(1262—1264);还有一本是Gunnar Karlsson的Iceland’s 1100 Years:The History of a Marginal Society(London:Hurst, 2000),不仅涵盖了冰岛的中古时期,还涉及现代冰岛部分。在Judith Maizels与Chris Caseldine编辑的Environmental Change in Iceland, Past and Present(Dordrecht:Kluwer, 1991)一书中,收录了多位作者的文章,专门研究冰岛环境史。Kirsten Hastrup在Island of Anthropology:Studies in Past and Present Iceland(Viborg:Odense University Press, 1990)中收录了自己写的以冰岛为主题的人类学研究报告。The Sagas of Icelanders:A Selection(New York:Penguin, 1997)一书中有17篇维京人的英译传奇故事(内有2篇文兰传奇),这些故事选自五卷本的The Complete Sagas of Icelanders(Reykjavík:Leifur Eiriksson, 1997)。
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有两篇论文论及冰岛的景观变化:Andrew Dugmore等人发表的 “Tephrochronology, environmental change and the Norse settlement of Iceland”(Environmental Archaeology 5:21-34(2000)),和Ian Simpson等人的论文“Crossing the thresholds:human ecology and historical patterns of landscape degradation”(Catena 42:175-192(2001))。由于每种昆虫对于栖息地和气候条件的要求都不相同,Paul Buckland与其同事通过对从考古遗址中保存下来的昆虫做研究,找出环境指标。他们的研究报告有Gudrún Sveinbjarnardóttir等人发表的“Landscape change in Eyjafjallasveit,Southern Iceland”(Norsk Geog, Tidsskr 36:75-88(1982));Paul Buckland等人发表的“Late Holocene palaeoecology at Ketilsstadir in Myrdalur, South Iceland”(Jökull 36:41-5(1986));Paul Buckland等人发表的“Holt in Eyjafjallasveit, Iceland:a paleoecological study of the impact of Landnám”(Acta Archaeologica 61:252-271(1991)):Gudrún Sveinbjarnardóttir等人发表的“Shielings in Iceland:an archaeological and historical survey”(Acta Archaeologica:61:74-96(1991));Paul Buckland等人写的“Palaeoecological investigations at Reykholt, Western Iceland,”收录于C.D.Morris与D.J.Rackhan编辑的Norse and Later Settlement and Subsistence in the North Atlantic(Glasgow:Glasgow University Press, 1992), pp.149-168;Colleen Batey等人编辑的The Viking Age in Caithness, Orkney and the North Atlantic(Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1993)书中收录了Paul Buckland等人合写的论文“An insect’s eye-view of the Norse farm,”pp.518-528。还有Kevin Edwards等人发表的“Landscapes at Landnám:palynological and palaeoentomological evidence from Toftanes,Faroe Islands”(Fródskaparrit 46:177-192(1998))同样以昆虫为切入点,以了解法罗群岛气候变化。
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关于维京人在格陵兰的发展,下面两本书里有详细的资料:Kirsten Seaver写的The Frozen Echo:Greenland and Exploration of North America ca.A.D.1000-1500(Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1996);以及Finn Gad写的The History of Greenland, vol.Ⅰ:Earliest Times to 1700(Montreal:McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1971)。Finn Gad其后又写了一本The History of Greenland, vol.Ⅱ:1700-1782(Montreal:McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1973),探讨了格陵兰岛再次为世人发现和丹麦人在此殖民的情形。Niels Lynnerup在他的专著The Greenland Norse:A Biologic-Anthropological Study(Copenhagen:Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland, 1998)里对格陵兰出土的维京人的骨骸进行了分析。至于因纽特人在格陵兰以及在他们之前来到格陵兰发展的美洲土著,下面两本文集可供参考:Martin Appelt与Hans Christian Gullóv等人编辑的Late Dorset in High Arctic Greenland(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 1999)和Martin Appelt等人编辑的Identities and Cultural Contacts in the Arctic(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 2000)。Jens Peder Hart Hansen等人编辑的The Greenland Mummies(London:British Museum Press, 1991)详细描述了在格陵兰出土的因纽特人的尸体,其中有六个女人、一个孩子和一个婴儿。这些人大约埋葬于1475年,由于格陵兰气候干冷,使得这些尸体和衣服没有腐烂,保存完好。该书封面就是那个六个月死婴的脸部照片,让人难以忘怀。
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近20年来,关于维京人在格陵兰的考古遗址,最重要的两个系列研究出自Thomas McGovern和 Jette Arneborg 及他们的同事。McGovern的论文有“The Vinland adventure:a North Atlantic perspective”(North American Archaeologist 2:285-308(1985));Thomas McGovern的“Contributions to the paleoeconomy of the Norse Greenland”(Acta Archaeologica 54:73-122(1985));Thomas McGovern等人合写的“Northern islands, human era, and environmental degradation:a view of social and ecological change in the medieval North Atlantic”(Human Ecology 16:225-270(1988));Thomas McGovern写的“Climate, correlation, and causation in Norse Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 28:77-100(1991));Thomas McGovem等人合写的“A vertebrate zooarchaeology of Sandnes V51:economic change at a chieftain’s farm in West Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 33:94-121(1996));Thomas Amorosi等人写的“Raiding the landscape:human impact from the Scandinavian North Atlantic”(Human Ecology 25:491-518(1997));以及Tom Amorosi等人合写的“They did not live by grass alone:the politics and paleoecology of animal fodder in the North Atlantic region”(Environmental Archaeology Ⅰ:41-54(1998))。Arneborg的论文包括Jette Arneborg的“The Roman church in Norse Greenland”(Acta Archaeologica 61:142-150(1990))和“Contact between Eskimos and Norsemen in Greenland:a review of the evidence”。第二篇论文被收录于Tvaerfaglige Vikingesymposium(Aarhus, Denmark:Aarhus University, 1993), pp.23-35;还有论文“Burgundian caps, Basques and dead Norsemen at Herjolfsnaes Greenland”收录在Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark(Copenhagen:Nationalmuseet, 1996), pp.75-83。还有Jette Arneborg等人合作发表的 “Change of diet of the Greenland Vikings determined from stable carbon isotope analysis and 14C dating of their bones”(Radiocarbon 41:157-168(1999))。由Arneborg 与她的同事们在格陵兰西聚落厚沙层下挖掘出著名的遗址“沙下农场”。在Jette Arneborg 和Hans Christian Gullóv合作编辑的论文集Man, Culture and Environment in Ancient Greenland(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 1998)中收录了一些关于沙下农场等遗址的论文。C.L .Vebaek也在Meddelelser om Grónland, Man and Society, Copenhagen上发表了三篇论文(编号为14、17、18(1991、1992、1993)),描述他从1945年到1962年在格陵兰的考古研究:The Church Topography of the Eastern Settlement and the Excavation of the Benedictine Convent at Narsarsuaq in the Uunartoq Fjord;Vatnahverfi:An Inland District of the Eastern Settlement in Greenland;以及Narsaq:A Norse Landnáma Farm。
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关于维京人在格陵兰的其他论文还有如下几篇:Robert McGhee发表的 “Contact between Native North Americans and the medieval Norse:a review of the evidence”(American Antiquity 49:4-26(1984));Joel Berglund的“The decline of the Norse settlements in Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 23:109-135(1986));Svend Albrethsen与Christian Keller合作发表的“The use of the saeter in medieval Norse farming in Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 23:91-107(1986));Christian Keller的“Vikings in the West Atlantic:a model of Norse Greenlandic medieval society”(Acta Archaeologica 61:126-141(1990));Bent Fredskild的论文“Agriculture in a marginal area:South Greenland from the Norse landnam(1985 A.D.)to the present 1985 A.D.,”收录于Hilary Birks等人编辑的The Cultural Landscape:Past,Present and Future(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp.381-393;Bent Fredskild的论文“Erosion and vegetational changes in South Greenland caused by agriculture”(Geografisk Tidsskrift 92:14-21(1992));还有Bjarne Jakobsen的“Soil resources and soil erosion in the Norse Settlement area of Østerbygden in southern Greenland”(Acta Borealia 1:56-68(1991))。
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