打字猴:1.704516678e+09
1704516678 创造性破坏的力量 [:1704513588]
1704516679 创造性破坏的力量 3.结论
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1704516681 本书第5章提到了创新可以促进社会流动性的观念。然而如本章所示,个人成为创新者的机遇存在严重不平等,尤其是,父母的受教育水平和社会经济地位是子女做出创新成就的关键决定因素。相应地,学校在促进机会平等上发挥着重要作用,特别是通过有效传播知识,并激发学生成为未来的创新者。
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1704516683 本章还把创新描述为一个多步骤的进程,从基础研究起步,再进入更实用阶段,并推出市场化的新产品。我们强调了大学作为学术自由和开放精神的守护者的角色,这些环境对保证基础研究必不可少,而应用研究阶段自然更适合在企业内部开展。至于大学的治理及其与外部经济环境的相互作用如何有助于它们发掘最大的创新潜力,在很大程度上仍是尚待探究的课题。[30]
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1704516685 [1]需要注意到,从更为广泛的创新视角看,这一定义或许过于严格。
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1704516687 [2]Alex Bell, Raj Chetty, Xavier Jaravel, Neviana Petkova, and John Van Reenen,“Who Becomes an Inventor in America? The Importance of Exposure to Innovation,”Quarterly Journal of Economics134, no. 2(2019):647 -713.
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1704516689 [3]U. Akcigit, J. Grigsby, and T. Nicholas,“The Rise of American Ingenuity:Innovation and Inventors of the Golden Age” (NBER Working Paper No. 23047,National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, January 2017).
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1704516691 [4]Philippe Aghion, Ufuk Akcigit, Ari Hyytinen, and Otto Toivanen,“The Social Origins of Inventors” (NBER Working Paper No. 24110, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, December 2017).该研究对于发明的定义是,向欧洲专利局提出专利申请。
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1704516693 [5]如果看数学和科学的测试成绩,则芬兰在77个国家里排名第10位,美国和法国分别居于第25位和第26位。
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1704516695 [6]Bell, Chetty, Jaravel, Petkova, and Van Reenen,“Who Becomes an Inventor in America?”
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1704516697 [7]Aghion, Akcigit, Hyytinen, and Toivanen,“The Social Origins of Inventors.”
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1704516699 [8]我们把父母的社会经济地位分为四类:蓝领、低层白领、高层白领、其他。
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1704516701 [9]关于这一主题一本特别有启发的书是Steven Pinker的The Blank Slate:TheModern Denial of Human Nature(New York: Viking, 2002).
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1704516703 [10]Ufuk Akcigit, Jeremy G. Pearce, and Marta Prato,“Tapping into Talent:Coupling Education and Innovation Policies for Economic Growth”(NBER Working Paper No. 27862, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge,MA, September 2020).
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1704516705 [11]与芬兰的案例分析一样,这项研究在估计中利用智商测试成绩(但这次是丹麦的数据)来测算个人的初始能力。而Bell et al. (2019)对美国的研究则是采用三年级的数学测试成绩。参见Bell et al. ,“Who Becomes an Inventor in America?”
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1704516707 [12]Philippe Aghion, Ufuk Akcigit, Ari Hyytinen and Otto Toivanen,“On the Returnsto Invention within Firms: Evidence from Finland,”AEAPapersandProceedings108(2018):208 -212.
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1704516709 [13]企业主的含义是占企业资本份额不低于50%的股东。
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1704516711 [14]Patrick Kline, Neviana Petkova, Heidi Williams and Owen Zidar,“Who Profits from Patents? Rent-Sharing at Innovative Firms,”QuarterlyJournalofEconomics134(2019):1343 -1404.
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1704516713 [15]专利的潜在价值由专利申请中的某些客观特征来判断。
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1704516715 [16]与前一小节不同,我们在本节中对企业主与创新者的身份不做区分。
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1704516717 [17]Scott Stern考察了同时收到大学与企业的职位邀请的研究人员的情况,并证明选择在大学工作会有财务损失,参见Scott Stern,“Do Scientists Pay to Be Scientists?”ManagementScience50, no. 6(2004):835 -853. See also Jeffrey L. Furman and Scott Stern,“Climbing atop the Shoulders of Giants: The Impact of Institutions on Cumulative Research,”AmericanEconomicReview101,no. 5(2011):1933 -1963.
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1704516719 [18]对研究进程的这一线性描述本身也是高度简化的。在现实中,经常有基础研究的新思想来自靠近市场化的应用研究。
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1704516721 [19]Philippe Aghion, Mathias Dewatripont, and Jeremy C. Stein,“Academic Freedom, Private-Sector Focus, and the Process of Innovation,”RANDJournalofEconomics39, no. 3(2008):617 -635.
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1704516723 [20]我们对大学作用的分析集中在研究上,而没有涉及教学。对这两种活动的互补性的社会学分析,可参见Pierre-Michel Menger,“Academic Work: A Tale of Essential Tension between Research and Teaching,”SociologiskForsking53, no. 2(2016):175 -192.
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1704516725 [21]私有化可能是避免公共品滥用的好办法。因为利益所系,私人所有者会关心资源的保护。然而,私有化可能导致产权的过分碎片化。如果众多私人利益方共享同一资源的所有权,每一方都可能妨碍其他人对其的利用,正如专利的情形所示。参见Michael A. Heller,“The Tragedy of the Anticommons: Property in the Transition from Marx to Markets,”HarvardLawReview111, no. 3(1998):621 -688.
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1704516727 [22]Fiona Murray, Philippe Aghion, Mathias Dewatripont, Julian Kolev, and Scott Stern,“Of Mice and Academics: Examining the Effect of Openness on Innovation,”American Economic Journal:Economic Policy8, no. 1(2016):212 -252.
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