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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第一章
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关于蒙大拿州的发展史,请参阅Joseph Howard的Montana:High, Wide, and Handsome(New Haven:Yale University Press, 1943);K.Ross Toole的Montana:An Uncommon Land(Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1959);K. Ross Toole 的20th-Century Montana:A State of Extremes(Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1972)以及Michael Malone、Richard Roeder与William Lang合著的Montana:A History of Two Centuries(修订版)(Seattle:University of Washington Press, 1991)。Russ Lawrence也为比特鲁谷画了一本图册:Montana’s Bitterroot Valley(Stevensville, Mont.:Stoneydale Press, 1991)。而Bertha Francis写的The Land of Big Snows(Butte,Mont.:Caxton Printers, 1955)讲述的是大洞盆地的历史。
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Thomas Power的Lost Landscapes and Failed Economies:The Search for Value of Place(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 1996)、Thomas Power与Richard Barrett合著的Post-Cowboy Economics:Pay and Prosperity in the New American West(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 2001)这两本书探讨了蒙大拿与美国西部山区的经济问题。想了解蒙大拿采矿业的历史和对环境的冲击,可参考以下两本书:David Stiller的Wounding the West:Montana, Mining, and the Environment(Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, 2000)和Michael Malone的The Battle for Butte:Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906(Helena, Mont.:Montana Historical Society Press, 1981)。Stephen Pyne写的关于森林火灾的书有Fire in America:A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire(Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 1982)和Year of the Fires:The Story of the Great Fires of 1910(New York:Viking Penguin.2001)。Stephen Arno与Steven Allison-Bunnell写过一本关于美国西部火灾问题的书:Flames in our Forests:Disaster or Renewal?(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 2002)。Harsh Bais等人在“Allelopathy and exotic plant invasion:from molecules and genes to species interactions”(Science 301:1377-1380(2003))一文中指出,斑点矢车菊会从根部分泌出一种危害本土植物的有毒物质,但不会伤害到其自身。Lynn Jacobs在Waste of the West:Public Lands Ranching(Tucson:Lynn Jacobs, 1991)一书中探讨了蒙大拿在内的美国西部的畜牧业对环境造成的影响。
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本章讨论的一些蒙大拿问题,可从下列网站或是该组织的电子邮件得到最新的信息:Bitterroot Land Trust:www.BitterRootLandTrust.org;Bitterroot Valley Chamber of Commerce:www.bvchamber.com;Bitterroot Water Forum:brwaterforum@bitterroot.mt;Friends of the Bitterroot:www.FriendsoftheBitterroot.org;Montana Weed Control Association:www.mtweed.org;Plum Creek Timber:www.plumcreek.com;Trout Unlimited’s Missoula office:montrout@montana.com;Whirling Disease Foundation:www.whirling-disease.org;Sonoran Institute:www.sonoran.org/programs/si_se;Center for the Rocky Mountain West:www.crmw.org/read;Montana Department of Labor and Industry:http://rad.dli.state.mt.us/pubs/profile.asp;Northwest Income Indicators Project:http://niip.wsu.edu/。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第二章
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普通读者如果想对复活节岛有个大概的认识,可从下面三本书着手:John Flenley与Paul Bahn合著的The Enigmas of Easter Island(New York:Oxford University Press, 2003),这本书的旧版是Easter Island, Earth Island(London:Thames and Hudson, 1992);还有Jo Anne Van Tilburg写的Easter Island:Archaeology,Ecology, and Culture(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994)和Among Stone Giants(New York:Scribner, 2003)。最后要提及的书是Katherine Routledge写的自传,这位伟大的英国考古学家在1914—1915年到复活节岛采访岛民,记录了岛民记忆中最后的奥隆戈宗教仪式。她的一生宛如一本精彩纷呈的小说。
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近年来出版的和复活节岛相关的书还有以下两本:Catherine 和Michel Orliac合著的The Silent Gods:Mysteries of Easter Island(London:Thames and Hudson, 1995), 还有John Loret和John Tancredi共同编辑的Easter Island:Scientific Exploration into the World’s Environmental Problems in Microcosm(New York:Kluwer/Plenum, 2003),书中有13个章节论述了近年来科学家们在岛上考察的结果。此外,对复活节岛有浓厚兴趣的人还可以参阅两本出版较早的经典著作:Katherine Routledge写的The Mystery of Easter Island(London:Sifton Praed, 1919, reprinted by Adventure Unlimited Press, Kempton, Ⅲ, 1998), 以及Alfred Métraux写的Ethnology of Easter Island(Honolulu:Bishop Museum Bullentin 160, 1940, reprinted 1971)。此外,Eric Kjellgren编辑的Splendid Isolation:Art of Easter Island(New York:Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001)收录了十几张照片,很多是彩图,有复活节岛的石雕、朗格朗格板、穆埃·卡瓦卡瓦的小雕像、穿树皮布的人,还有红羽毛做的头饰,红色石帽普卡奥的灵感也许正来源于此。
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Jo Anne Van Tilburg的论文包括“Easter Island(Rapa Nui)archaeology since 1955:some thoughts on progress, problems and potential,”pp.555-577,收录于J.M.Davidson等人编辑的Oceanic Culture History:Essays in Honour of Roger Green(New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication, 1996);她和Cristián Arévalo Pakarati合写的“The Rapanui carvers’perspective:notes and observations on the experimental replication of monolithic sculpture(moai),”被收录在A.Herle等人编辑的Pacific Art:Persistence, Change and Meaning(Bathurst, Australia:Crawford House, 2002)一书中;她与Ted Ralston合写的“Megaliths and mariners:experimental archaeology on Easter Island(Rapa Nui)”这篇论文被收录在K.L.Johnson编辑的Onward and Upward!Papers in Honor of Clement W.Meighan(University Press of America)。上面提到的后两篇论文描述了考古学家为了弄明白石像的雕刻、搬运过程和搬运时间所做的实验研究。
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适合大众阅读的有关波利尼西亚聚落的好书很多,其中包括Patrick Kirch写的On the Road of the Winds:An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact(Berkeley:University of California Press, 2000)、The Lapita Peoples:Ancestors of the Oceanic World(Oxford:Blackwell, 1997),以及The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1984);Peter Bellwood写的The Polynesians:Prehistory of an Island People(修订版)(London:Thames and Hudson, 1987);Geoffrey Irwin的The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992)。David Lewis的We, the Navigators(Honolulu:University Press of Hawaii, 1972)对传统太平洋航海技术有独特的描述。作者本人是个现代航海家,他和仅存的尚在使用传统航海技术的土著们一起远航,以此研究传统的航海技术。Patrick Kirch和Terry Hunt共同编辑的Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands:Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change(New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1997)收录了多篇论文探讨在复活节岛等太平洋群岛上,人类对生态环境的影响。
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Thor Heyerdahl的两本书引发了我和许多人对复活节岛的兴趣。一本是The Kon-Tiki Expedition(London:Alien & Unwin, 1950),还有一本是Aku-Aku:The Secret of Easter Island(London:Alien & Unwin, 1958)。Heyerdahl带考古学家们去复活节岛进行挖掘考察,因此对复活节岛有与众不同的诠释,见Thor Heyerdahl与E.Ferdon, Jr.共同编辑的Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific, vol.1:The Archaeology of Easter Island(London:Alien & Unwin, 1961)。Steven Fischer写的Glyph Breaker(New York:Copernicus,1997)和Rongorongo:The Easter Island Script(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1997)这两本描述了Fischer如何解读朗格朗格文字。Andrew Sharp编辑的The Journal of Jacob Roggeveen(London:Oxford University Press, 1970)reprints on pp.89-106有第一个来到复活节岛欧洲人的第一眼印象的描述。
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Claudio Cristino、Patricia Vargas与R.Izaurieta合著的Atlas Arqueológico de Isia de Pascua(Santiago:University of Chile, 1981)复活节岛的考古研究做了一番总结。关于复活节岛,更详细的信息可以参看Easter Island Foundation定期出版的期刊Rapa Nui Journal,该基金会偶尔也出版关于复活节岛的研讨会论文集。重要的论文集有Claudio Cristino、Patricia Vargas等人编辑的First International Congress, Easter Island and East Polynesia, vol.1 Archaeology(Santiago:University of Chile, 1988);Patricia Vargas Casanova编辑的Easter Island and East Polynesia Prehistory(Santiago:University of Chile, 1998);还有Christopher Stevenson、William Ayres合编的Easter Island Archaeology:Research on Early Rapanui Culture(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 2000)。有关不同文化碰触的历史可以参考Claudio Cristino等人的Isla de Pascua:Procesos, Alcances y Efectos de la Aculturación(Easter Island:University of Chile, 1984)。
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David Steadman的鸟类骨头辨析报告以及在安纳克那海滩的考古发现见下面三篇论文:“Extinctions of birds in Eastern Polynesia:a review of the record, and comparisons with other Pacific Island groups”(Journal of Archaeological Science 16:177-205(1989))与“Stratigraphy, chronology, and cultural context of an early faunal assemblage from Easter Island”(Asian Perspectives 33:79-96(1994)),这两篇论文的合作者都是Patricia Vargas和Claudio Cristino;还有“Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific Island birds;biodiversity meets zooarchaeology”(Science 267:1123-1131(1995))。William Ayres在“Easter Island subsistence”(Journal de la Sociétédes Océanistes 80:103-124(1985))一文中对于岛民的食物提供了更进一步的考古证据。针对复活节岛棕榈树消失之谜的解释和湖底沉积物样本的花粉研究见下列论文:J.R.Flenley 和Sarah King合写的“Late Quaternary pollen records from Easter Island”(Nature 307:47-50(1984));J.Dransfielf 等人写的“A recently extinct palm from Easter Island”(Nature 312:750-752(1984));以及J.R.Flenley等人共同发表的“The Late Quaternary vegetational and climatic history of Ester Island”(Journal of Quaternary Science 6:85-115(1991))。Catherine Orliac的研究结果见上述Stevenson与Ayres编辑的论文集,此外他还写了“Données nouvelles sur la composition de la flore de l’île de Paques”(Journal de la Société des Océanistes 2:23-31(1998))。关于Claudio Cristino和其同事所作的考古调查结果可见下列论文:Christopher Stevenson和Claudio Cristino 合作发表的“Residential settlement history of the Rapa Nui coastal plain”(Journal of New World Archaeology 7:29-38(986));Daris Swindler、Andrea Drusini与Claudio Cristino共同发表的“Variation and frequency of three-rotted first molars in precontact Easter Island:anthropological significance”(Journal of the Polynesian Society 106:175-183(1997));以及Claudio Cristino与Patricia Vargas共同发表的“Ahu Tongariki, Easter Island:chronological and sociopolitical significance”(Rapa Nui Journal 13:67-69(1999))。
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Christopher Stevenson写的关于集约农业和石块护根法的论文集有Archaeological Investigations on Easter Island;Maunga Tari:An Upland Agriculture Complex(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 1995);以及与Joan Wozniak、Sonia Haoa共合作发表的“Prehistoric agriculture production on Easter Island(Rapa Nui), Chile”(Antiquity 73:801-812(1999));与Thegn Ladefoged、Sonia Haoa合作发表的“Productive strategies in an uncertain environment:prehistoric agriculture on Easter Island”(Rapa Nui Journal 16:17-22(2002))。Christopher Stevenson写的“Territorial divisions on Easter Island in the 16th century:evidence from the distribution of ceremonial architecture”被收录于T.Ladefoged和M.Graves共同编辑的Pacific Landscapes(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 2002), pp.213-229,这篇论文重建了复活节岛上11个传统部落的地盘界线。
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Dale Lightfoot的“Morphology and ecology of lithic-mulch agriculture”(Geographical Review 84:172-185(1994))和Carleton White等人发表的“Water conservation through an Anasazi gardening technique”(New Mexico Journal of Science 38:251-278(1998)),这两篇论文列出证据表明世界其他地区也使用石块护根法。Andreas Mieth与Hans-Rudolf Bork合作发表的“Diminution and degradation of environmental resources by prehistoric land use on Poike Peninsula, Easter Island(Rapa Nui)”(Rapa Nui Journal 17:34-41(2003))探讨了珀伊克半岛上滥伐森林及土壤侵蚀的情况。Karsten Haase等人发表的“The petrogenetic evolution of lavas from Easter Island and neighboring seamounts, near-ridge hotspot volcanoes in the S.E.Pacific”(Journal of Petrology 38:785-813(1997))对复活节岛火山的形成年代和化学成分进行了分析。Erika Hagelberg等人发表的“DNA from ancient Easter Islanders”(Nature 369:25-26(1994))对12个复活节岛民的骨骸做了DNA分析报告。James Brander和M.Scott Taylor共同发表的论文“The simple economics of Easter Island:a Ricardo-Malthus model of renewable resource use”(American Economic Review 38:119-138(1998))则是从经济学的角度来分析复活节岛资源过度开发的情形。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第三章
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第二章补充阅读提供的波利尼西亚聚落形成的文献资料已经涵盖东南波利尼西亚聚落。Tim Benton和Tom Spencer 合作编辑了The Pitcairn Islands:Biogeography, Ecology, and Prehistory(London:Academic Press, 1995),内含1991—1992年间科学家们在皮特凯恩岛、汉德森岛及奥埃诺和杜西环礁考察研究的结果。该书有27个章节,涉及这些群岛的地理、植物、鸟类(包括在汉德森岛灭绝的鸟类)、鱼类、陆地和海洋的无脊椎动物,以及人类对当地生态环境造成的影响。
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本书使用的波利尼西亚族群在皮特凯恩岛和汉德森岛定居和离弃的资料大部分来自Marshall Weisler与其同事的研究成果。在上文提到的Tim Benton和Tom Spencer编辑的论文集里,其中一个章节就是Weisler对自己研究成果的一个概述:“Henderson Island prehistory:colonization and extinction on a remote Polynesian island”(pp.377-404)。此外,他又撰写了两篇综合报告:“The settlement of marginal Polynesia:new evidence from Henderson Island”(Journal of Field Archaeology 21:83-102(1994)),和“An archaeological survey of Mangareva:implications for regional settlement models and interaction studies”(Man and Culture and Oceania 12:61-85(1996))。此外,Weisler又写了四篇论文用以解释如何对当地发现的玄武岩手斧进行化学分析,从而能弄清玄武岩的出处,也有助于了解当时的贸易路线。这四篇论文分别是:与D.Whitehead合作发表的“Provenance studies of Polynesian basalt adzes material:a review and suggestions for improving regional databases”(Asian Perspectives 32:61-83(1993));“Basalt pb isotope analysis and the prehistoric settlement of Polynesia”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 92:1881-1885(1995));以及与Patrick V.Kirch合作发表的“Interisland and interarchipelago transfer of stone tools in prehistoric Polynesia”(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 93:1381-1385(1996));“Hard evidence for prehistoric interaction in Polynesia”(Current Anthropology 39:521-532(1998))。探讨波利尼西亚东部与东南贸易网络的论文有 Marshall Weisler与R.C.Green合作发表的“Holistic approaches to interaction studies:a Polynesian example”(pp.413-453);Martin Jones与Peter Sheppard编辑的Australasian Connections and New Directions(Auckland, N.Z.:Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, 2001);R.C.Green和Marshall Weisler的“The Mangarevan sequence and dating of the geographic expansion into Southeast Polynesia”(Asian Perspectives 41: 213-241(2002));以及Marshall Weisler的“Centrality and the collapse of long-distance voyaging in East Polynesia”(pp.257-273),这篇论文被收录于Michael D.Glascock编辑的Geochemical Evidence for Long-Distance Exchange(London:Bergin and Garvey, 2002)。关于汉德森岛上的农作物和骨骸可见下列三篇论文:Jon G.Hather与Marshall Weisler的“Prehistoric giant swamp taro(Cyrtosperma chamissionis)from Henderson Island, Southeast Polynesia”(Pacific Science 54:149-156(2000));Sara Collins和Marshall Weisler的“Human dental and skeletal remains from Henderson Island, Southeast Polynesia”(People and Culture in Oceania 16:67-85(2000));以及Vincent Stefan、Sara Collins和Marshall Weisler合作发表的“Henderson Island crania and their implication for southeastern Polynesian prehistory”(Journal of the Polynesian Society 111:371-383(2002))。
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对皮特凯恩岛和汉德森岛感兴趣或是喜欢看精彩故事的人一定不能错过Charles Nordhoff与James Norman Hall合写的小说Pitcairn’s Island(Boston:Little, Brown, 1934)。这本小说用写实的手法重现了叛舰喋血记中叛变者们如何控制船舰,驱逐船长与其亲信,然后来到皮特凯恩岛自相残杀的故事。该事件的真实情况可参阅Caroline Alexander写的The Bounty(New York:Viking, 2003)。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第四章
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