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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第十四章
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本章除了用我加州大学洛杉矶分校的学生的问题作引子外,Joseph Tainter 的The Collapses of Complex Societies(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988)也起了一个很好的开头,他在书里解释了一个社会为何没能解决自身的环境问题。Thomas McGovern等人发表的“Northern islands, human error, and environmental degradation:a view of social and ecological change in the medieval North Atlantic”(Human Ecology 16:225-270(1988))追溯了中世纪格陵兰的维京人为何没能洞察环境问题。对这个谜团感兴趣的读者,可以参阅McGovern等人的见解,我在本章提出的答案,有一部分与McGovern的观点重复。
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Elinor Ostrom和她的同事对公地的悲剧(又称共同资源)进行了研究,通过比较调查和实验博弈两种方式,识别消费者在何种情况下,最能发现他们的共同利益并实行有效的配额系统。Ostrom写的一系列专著中有她个人写的Governing the Commons:The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1990);还有她和Roy Gardner、James Walker合著的Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources(Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press, 1994)。Elinor Ostrom近年发表的论文包括“Coping with tragedies of the commons”(Annual Reviews of Political Science 2:493-535(1999));她与别人合作发表的“Revisiting the commons:local lessons, global challenges”(Science 284:278-282(1999));还有Thomas Dietz与Elinor Ostrom和Paul Stern共同发表的“The struggle to govern the commons ”(Science 302:1907-1912(2003))。
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Barbara Tuchman在The March of Folly:From Troy to Vietnam(New York:Ballantine Books, 1984)一书中,囊括了如书名所言的从特洛伊战争到越战,由古至今所发生过的众多灾难性决策,其中有阿兹台克皇帝蒙提祖玛的愚行、西班牙天主教势力的衰败、英国对美国革命的挑衅等自毁行为。而Charles Mackay的Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds(New York:Barnes and Noble, 1993, reprint of the original 1852 edition)讨论的范围比Tuchman的书更广,他还提到了英国18世纪的南海泡沫、17世纪荷兰的郁金香热、末日审判中的预言、十字军东征、猎杀女巫、鬼魂信仰、圣迹崇拜、法师斗法,以及国王颁布的针对头发和胡须长度的规定等。Irving Janis写的Groupthink(Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1983, revised 2nd ed.)一书通过研究近年来美国总统及其顾问团的决策来探讨群体决策的成败。Janis的案例研究包括1961年猪湾危机、1950年美军越过三八线、1941年日本偷袭珍珠港迫使美国卷入战争、1964年至1967年间美国介入越战、1962年古巴导弹危机,还有美国在1947年为了援助欧洲经济复兴推动的马歇尔计划。
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Garrett Hardin发表在Science 162:1243-1248(1968)上的“The tragedy of the commons”是一篇引用率极高的经典文章。Mancur Olson的“Dictatorship,democracy,and development”(American Political Science Review 87:567-576(1993))用流寇和坐寇来形容中国军阀。Hal Arkcs与Peter Ayton合作发表的“The sunk cost and Concorde effects:are humans less rational than lower animals?”(Psychological Bulletin 125:591-600(1999)),以及Marco Janssen等人发表的“Sunk-cost effects and vulnerability to collapse in ancient societies”(Current Anthropology 44:722-728(2003))这两篇论文对沉没成本效应进行了探讨。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第十五章
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有关石油业的发展史和前景展望可参看下列两本书:Kenneth Deffeyes写的Hubbert’s Peak:The Impending World Oil Shortage(Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 2001)和Paul Roberts的The End of Oil(Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 2004)。业界的视角可从一些大型国际石油公司的网站来了解, 如雪佛龙德士古的www.chevrontexaco.corn。
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有关采矿业的真实情况,读者可关注几家主要的矿产公司共同发起的一项名为“Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development”的计划,相关出版物有Breaking New Ground:Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development(London:Earthscan, 2002);以及Alistair MacDonald的Industry in Transition:A Profile of the North American Mining Sector(Winnipeg:International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2002)。其他数据还有华盛顿矿业政策中心的出版物,如最近更名为Earthworks的杂志(网址:www.mineralpolicy.org)。探讨采矿业环境问题的专著有:Duane Smith的Mining America:The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980(Boulder:University Press of Colorado, 1993);Thomas Power写的Lost Landscapes and Failed Economies:The Search for a Value of Place(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 1996);Jerrold Marcus编辑的Mining Environmental Handbook:Effects of Mining on the Environment and American Environmental Controls on Mining(London:Imperial College Press, 1997);以及Al Gedicks的Resource Rebels:Native Challenges to Mining and Oil Corporations(Cambridge, Mass:South End Press, 2001)。下列两本书讲述了巴布亚新几内亚布根维尔岛铜矿开采业经营失利的情况:M.O’Callaghan写的Enemies Within:Papua New Guinea, Australia, and the Sandline Crisis:The Inside Story(Sydney:Doubleday, 1999);和Donald Denoon写的Getting Under the Skin:The Bougainville Copper Agreement and Creation of the Panguna Mine(Melbourne:Melbourne University Press, 2000)。
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有关森林认证的信息,请登录森林管理委员会的网站:www.fscus.org。如果想了解森林管理委员会与其他认证系统的区别,可以参阅Saskia Ozinga的Behind the Logs:An Environmental and Social Assessment of Forest Certification Schemes(Moreton-in-Marsh, UK:Fern, 2001)。关于森林砍伐史,可参考下列两本书:John Perlin的A Forest Journey:The Role of Wood in the Development of Civilization(New York:Norton, 1989)和Michael Williams写的Deforesting the Earth:From Prehistory to Global Crisis(Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2003)。
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有关渔业养殖证的信息,可以登录海洋管理委员会的网站:www.msc.org。Howard M.Johnson(网站:www.hmj.com)写了一系列名为美国水产业的年报(Jacksonville, Ore.:Howard Johnson, annually)。在Jason Clay 的World Agriculture and the Environment:A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 2004)一书中,有两章专门探讨虾和鲑鱼的水产养殖。有关总体或个别鱼类过度捕捞的问题,可以参看下列四本书籍:Mark Kurlansky的Cod:A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World(New York:Walker, 1997);Suzanne Ludicello、Michael Weber与Robert Wreland的Fish, Markets, and the Fishermen:The Economics of Overfishing(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 1999);David Montgomery写的King of Fish:The Thousand-Year Run of Salmon(New York:Westview, 2003);以及Daniel Pauly与Jay Maclean的In a Perfect Ocean(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 2003)。相关论文可参看Jeremy Jackson等人发表的“Historical overfishing and thc recent collapse of coastal ecosystems”(Science 293:629-638(2001))。Ronald Hits等人在他们的报告“Global assessment of organic contaminates in farmed salmon”(Science 303:226-229(2004))中提出人工养殖的三文鱼比野生三文鱼含有的毒素更高。
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如果不了解企业在竞争激烈的商界生存的艰难,就很难理解企业采用的环境措施。就这一主题,如下三本书可供参考:Thomas Peters、Robert Waterman Jr合著的In Search of Excellence:Lessons from America’s Best-Run Companies(New York:HarperCollins, 1982, republished in 2004);Robert Waterman Jr.的The Renewal Factor:How the Best Get and Keep the Competitive Edge(Toronto:Bantam Books, 1987);以及Robert Waterman Jr.写的Adhocracy:The Power to Change(New York:Norton, 1990)。
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探讨企业经营与环境保护两者如何兼顾的书籍有Tedd Saunders与Loretta McGovern合著的The Bottom Line of Green Is Black:Strategies for Creating Profitable and Environmentally Sound Businesses(San Francisco:HarperSanFrancisco, 1993);以及Jem Bendell编辑的Terms for Endearmen:Business NGOs and Sustainable Development(Sheffield, UK:Greenleaf, 2000)。
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崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第十六章
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2001年以后出版的一些综述当今环境问题,以及介绍这方面文献资料的书籍有:Stuart Pimm的The World According to Pimm:A Scientist Audits the Earth(New York:McGraw-Hill, 2001);Lester Brown写的三本书:Eco-economy:Building an Economy for the Earth(New York:Norton, 2001), Plan B:Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and Civilization in Trouble(New York:Norton, 2003), 以及State of the World(New York:Norton, published annually since 1984);还有Edward Wilson的The Future of Life(New York:Knopf, 2002);Gretchen Daily与Katherine Ellison合著的The New Economy of Nature:The Quest to Make Conservation Profitable(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 2002);David Lorey编辑的Global Environmental Challenges of the Twenty-first century:Resources, Consumption, and Sustainable Solutions(Wilmington, Del.:Scholarly Resources, 2003);Paul Ehrlich与Anne Ehrlich合著的One with Nineveh:Politics, Consumption, and the Human Future(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 2004);以及James Speth写的Red Sky at Morning:America and the Crisis of the Global Environment(New Haven:Yale University Press, 2004)。
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第十五章的补充阅读部分提供了有关滥伐森林、过度捕捞和石油业问题的参考文献。Vaclav Smil在Energy at the Crossroads: Global Perspectives and Uncertainties(Cambridge, Mass.:MIT Press, 2003)一书中不仅提到石油、煤炭和天然气,还涉及其他形式的能源。探讨生物多样性的危机和栖息地破坏问题的专著有John Terborgh写的Where Have All the Birds Gone?(Princeton, N.J.Princeton University Press, 1989)和Requiem for Nature(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 1999);David Quammen的Song of the Dodo(New York:Scribner, 1997);以及Marjorie Reaka-Kudla等人编辑的Biodiversity 2:Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources(Washington, D.C.:Joseph Henry Press, 1997)。
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有关珊瑚礁破坏的最新论文有:T.P.Hughes的“Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs”(Science 301:929-933(2003));J.M.Pandolfi等人发表的“Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems”(Science 301:955-958(2003));及D.R.Bellwood等人合作发表的“Confronting the coral reef crisis”(Nature 429:827-833(2004))。
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涉及土壤问题的专著有:Vernon Gill Carter 与Tom Dale合著的经典之作Topsoil and Civilization, revised ed.(Norman:University of Okalahoma Press, 1974);及Keith Wiebe编辑的Land Quality, Agricultural Productivity, and Food Security:Biophysical Processes and Economic Choices at Local, Regional, and Global Levels(Cheltenham, UK:Edward Elgar, 2003)。与上述专著持不同观点的论文有 David Pimentel等人发表的“Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits”(Science 267:1117-1123(1995));Stanley Trimble 与Pierre Crosson共同发表的“U.S.soil erosion rates — myth and reality”(Science 289:248-250(2000));还有不同作者在Science发表的八篇相关文章304:1613-1637(2004)。
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有关世界各地的供水问题,参看Peter Gleick每隔两年发表的相关报告,如The World’s Water, 1998-1999:The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 2000)。Vernon Scarborough在The Flow of Power:Ancient Water Systems and Landscapes(Santa Fe:School of American Research, 2003)一书中对于古代各个社会解决用水问题的方法进行了比较。
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关于绿色植物通过光合作用吸收和使用太阳能(被称为“净初级生产力”),可参看Peter Vitousek等人发表的“Human domination of Earths ecosystems”(Science 277:494-499(1997))。Mark Imhoff等人写的“Global patterns in human consumption of net primary production”(Nature 429:870-873(2004))使用的资料更新,并分地区进行探讨。
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Theo Colborn、Dianne Dumanoski与John Peterson Myers合著的Our Stolen Future(New York:Plume, 1997)一书综述了有毒化学物质对于生物(包括人类在内)的影响。有关有毒化学物质给人类带来的巨大经济代价及其对于整个生态系统的冲击可参看Tom Horton与William Eichbaum合著的Turning the Tide:Saving the Chesapeake Bay(Washington, D.C.:Island Press, 1991)。
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论及全球变暖和气候变化的专著有:Steven Schneider的Laboratory Earth:The Planetary Gamble We Can’t Afford to Lose(New York:Basic Books,1997);Michael Glantz写的Currents of Change:Impacts of El Niño and La Niña on Climate and Society, 2nd ed.(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2001);以及Spencer Weart的The Discovery of Global Warming(Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 2003)。
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