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1700096283 20.Otto von Freising，1.32：“Dux … secus quam disciplina militaris et ordo exposuit, non pedetemptim incedens sed praecipitanter advolans in hostem ruit suis gregatim adventantibus et dirupto legionum ordine confuse venientibus.”（“The duke … otherwise than as knightly training and rank lays down, charged, not proceeding cautiously but flying headlong at the enemy with his men advancing like a herd of cattle and coming in disorder after the formation of the units had been disrupted.”）

1700096284

1700096285 Baldric, Historia Jerosolimitana（Recueil des Historiens des Croisades. Historiens Occidentaux），4.95: “Sagittarios et pedites suos ordinaverunt et ipsis praemissis pedetemptim ut mos est Francorum, pergebant.”（“They drew up their archers and foot soldiers and with themselves in the lead they proceeded cautiously, as is the custom of the Franks.”）

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1700096287 Heelu, verse 4898 ff.，describes the approach ride in the battle of Worringen as follows: “As the opponents were moving up against each other, they went about this matter so calmly, at a leisurely pace, coming from the two sides as if they were men riding along with their brides in front of them in the saddle.”

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1700096289 Guiart, too, in his account of the battle of Mons-en-Pévèle, verse 11494（cited by Köhler，2：269），says that each unit rode up slowly and in closed formation—“Each group moves along at a slow pace, advancing together as in a square.”

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1700096291 21.Emperor Leo says, para.80 ff.，the Franks do not form up on horseback or on foot by regiments or squadrons with specific strengths, but by families and groups of companions（“not in a determined size and formation, either sections or divisions as the Romans, but according to tribes and by kinship and attachment to each other, many times even by sworn agreement”*）.

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1700096293 Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte，8：179，believes that individual source passages indicate an organization by thousands, so that every thousand men formed a special unit, and that would undoubtedly mean a thousand horsemen, even if perhaps not always or not completely heavily armed horsemen. Such a group was, according to Waitz, designated as a “legio，” and this name also applied to the tactical unit formed for battle.

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1700096295 That is a false concept. A thousand horsemen form such a powerful force that they cannot be designated as a tactical unit, and such a formation with fixed numbers is not consistent with the nature of feudal contingents under their feudal lords. Emperor Leo had a more accurate conception of it. Widukind’s strength figure for the battle on the Lechfeld, insofar as the number 1，000 is concerned, is merely a number, and the expression “legion” is a scholarly embellishment.

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1700096297 Among the Normans, we find a faint trace of an organization in groups of ten warriors. It is reported that Tancred of Hauteville had ten knights under him at the court of the count of Normandy（“in curia comitis decern milites sub se habens servivit”）. Gottfried Malaterra, Migne, CXLIX，1121. Furthermore, the knightly services which William the Conqueror required of his most important vassals were always divisible by five or ten.

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1700096299 The Knights Templars were grouped in “squadrons”（“eschielle”）whenever they took to the field（Regulations, Chap.161）. I have never been able to determine how strong an “eschielle” was.

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1700096301 In the Crusade, Emperor Frederick I divided his army into units of fifty. How strange such an organization, which seems to us natural and indispensable, was to a medieval army is best indicated by the special attention Ansbert gives to this measure in his report（Fontes rerum Austriacarum, Abteilung I, Scriptores: Sources of Austrian History, Section I, Historians，5.34）：

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1700096303 Interea serenissimus imperator ut fidelis et prudens familiae domini dispensator de statu sanctissimae crucis exercitus in dies sollicitus, praefecit eidem pentarchos seu quinquagenos magistros militum, ut videlicet universi in suis societatibus per quinquagenarios divisi singulis regerentur magistris, sivi in bellicis negotiis, sive in dispensationum controversiis salvo iure marschalli aulae imperialis. Sexaginta quoque meliores ac prudentiores de exercitu delegit, quorum consilio et arbitrio cuncta exercitus negotia perficerentur, qui tamen postea solertioris cautelae dispensation et certi causa mysterii pauciori numero designati sedecim de sexaginta sunt effecti.（Meanwhile the most serene emperor, as the loyal and wise steward of the royal house and anxious every day about the state of the crusade, placed pentarchs or fifty masters of the soldiers in charge of it, clearly so that all divided in their companies by the commanders of fifty might be governed by a master both in military affairs and in disputes over orders by the reserved right of a marshal of the imperial court. He also selected sixty better and more prudent men of the army by whose counsel and judgment all affairs of the army might be accomplished. But afterwards, by an ordinance of rather clever caution and by reason of a definite plan, they were assigned by a smaller number and were made sixteen from the sixty.）

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1700096305 22.Edited by Karl Hegel, Chronicles of the German Cities（Chroniken der deutschen Städte），Vol.II，1864.

1700096306

1700096307 23.As shown on p.485. According to the report on p.203，there were only 400.

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1700096309 24.According to Albrecht’s letter, City Chronicles，2.495，there were 450“riding horses” and “about 50‘Drabanten’.”

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1700096311 25.Köhler，2：695，drew from Dlugoss, Hist. Polon，11.240，edition of 1711（incorrectly, of course）the fact that the Poles rode up in this formation at the battle of Tannenberg.

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1700096313 But in his Military History of Bavaria（Kriegsgeschichte von Bayern），Würdinger, who used Archivalien as a reference, reported, at the battle of Hiltersried in 1433，where Duke John of Neumarkt or Neunburg defeated the Hussites, exactly the same formation of the knights as at Pillenreuth, giving their names. The banners were placed in the third rank. According to a study that District Assessor Reimer in Neunburg sent me, however, there was no report of a wedge formation. The knights apparently were stationed on foot at the point of an assault column that attacked the Hussite wagon stronghold.

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1700096315 The formation with a point is prescribed as a regulation, so to speak, in Elector Albrecht Achilles’instructions to his son John for the campaign against the duke of Sagan, the so-called Preparation of 1477. Quoted in Jähns’Manual of the History of Military Science（Handbuch von Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften），p.979 ff.，and Kriegsgeschichte, Document of the Supreme General Staff，1884，Book 3. In the formation prescribed here, the banners were placed in the eleventh, fourteenth, or nineteenth rank.

1700096316

1700096317 26.Themes for Instruction in Tactics in the Royal Military Schools（Leitfaden für den Unterricht in der Taktik der königlichen Kriegsschulen），2d ed.，1890，p.45. Drill Regulations for Cavalry（Exerzier-Reglement für die Kavallerie），（1895），No.319-331.

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1700096319 27.The “point” did not occur before the fifteenth century.

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1700096321 Each group moves along at a slow pace，

1700096322

1700096323 Advancing together as in a square，

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1700096325 says Guiart, verse 11494，in his description of Mons-en-Pévèle（1304），cited by Köhler in his 2：269. The first example of the point is perhaps the formation of the troops of the Dauphiné“en pointe” in the battle of Mons-en-Vimeux in 1421，cited in Köhler，2：226，note. Recommendations for the formation with a point in documents of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are to be found in Jähns，1：328，738，and 740. At the end of the fifteenth century, under Maximilian, the formation was surely squared off again. Leonhard Fronsperger speaks of the “pointed” battle formation as an obsolete one（Köhler，3：2：251）. We already find a formation of horsemen in a wedge or rhomboid in antiquity mentioned in Aelian, Chap.18，and Asclepiodotus, Chap.7. Among the reasons for this, which are probably theoretical fantasies, at least in part, it is also stated that control and wheeling actions are easier than in the squared formation. As far as control is concerned, this is obviously correct. With respect to wheeling actions, I understand that as meaning they did not need to make any true wheeling motion but could easily turn half-right or half-left by changing the rhomboid into a square.

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1700096327 28.“Istos in una et prima acie posuit et dixit illis: campus amplus est; extendite vos per campum directe, ne vos hostes intercludant. Non deceti ut unus miles scutum sibi de alio milite faciat; sed sic stetis, ut omnes quas, una fronte possitis pugnare.”（“He set them in one battle line and said to them: The field is big; extend yourselves across the field in a straight line so that the enemy may not cut you off. It is not proper that a knight make a shield for himself from another knight. But you should thus stand that all are able to fight on one front.”）

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1700096329 29.Köhler，2：226 and 3：2：253，believes that the formation in line first occurred in the fifteenth century. I see no basis for this assumption. Wherever mixed combat took place, the linear formation must have gained ground. Boutaric, p.297，makes the general statement: “The knights fought‘en haye，’that is to say, in a single line; the squires were drawn up behind them.”

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1700096331 30.Baltzer, p.106，cites two pieces of evidence for this.

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