1700096910
Morris, The Welsh Wars, p. 80，claims that in England the combining of the various combat arms into units was first seen at the siege of Dunbar in 1337. Previously, to include the reign of Edward I, the various combat arms appeared as separate units.
1700096911
1700096912
Cosneau, p. 358，note, states that the English had three marksmen in each lance. He gives an example in which two men-at-arms and two marksmen formed all together a group of nine men and nine horses.
1700096913
1700096914
13.Cosneau, p.357. The ordinance of Luppé-le-Chastel of 26 May 1445 is reproduced on p.610. This shows the lance as consisting of one knight, one coutillier, one page, two marksmen, one serving man, and six horses.
1700096915
1700096916
14.We find used very often the formula “‘ban et arrière-ban’（‘vassals and subvassals’）were levied.”
1700096917
1700096918
According to Guilhiermoz, p. 294，the “arrière-ban” in France was originally the same thing as the Landwehr（militia）in Germany, that is, the general levy of all men capable of bearing arms. He says that the feudal service was later limited to the “arrière-ban” and the “arrière-ban” was limited to men holding fiefs.
1700096919
1700096920
Boutaric, p. 140 f.，reports in detail on the conditions that were issued on the levy under Louis IX and were specified in numerous “coutumes”（customs）. They limited the rights of the lord to an extreme degree. He was allowed to levy his men only for defense, or only in the region governed by the lord, or only so far as to allow the man to return home on the same evening.
1700096921
1700096922
Luce, Bertrand du Guesclin, p. 159，recounts that, according to an unpublished ordinance, on 17 May 1355 King John called up “the ban et I’arrière-ban, that is to say, all physically qualified men between the ages of eighteen and sixty.” That can hardly have been the intention of the ordinance, and Luce himself believes that the French communes did not obey this order. When Luce adds that Edward III in England really gave the arrière-ban “a truly practical character” by having all his subjects carry out weapons training, that is also an error.
1700096923
1700096924
15.In addition to the references already cited, see Spont，“La Milice des francs-archers，”Revue des questions historiques, Vol.61.
1700096925
1700096926
16.Boutaric, Institutions militaires de la France, p.218. Jähns, Handbuch, p.759. According to Juvénal des Ursins and the Monk of Saint Denis. The latter author states that the people carried out the drills with great zeal.
1700096927
1700096928
17.The military system of Charles the Bold is treated excellently by M. Guillaume，“Histoire de l’organisation militaire sous les dues de Bourgogne，” in the Mémoires couronnés et mémoires des savants étrangers publiés par l’Académie de Belgique, Vol.22，Brussels，1848. Much valuable material is also to be found in La Chauvelays, La Composition des armées de Charles le Téméraire，1879. In the Mémoires de I’Académie de Dijon, Tome VI.（also published in Paris as a separate edition）. I have discussed it myself in my Perser-und Burgunderkriege.
1700096929
1700096930
18.In 1340 the count of Armagnac had only 300 fully equipped men-at-arms in a force of 800（Grande chronique de St. Denys，5：393，ed. Paulin）.
1700096931
1700096932
In 1429 the noblemen who reinforced Charles VII“did not have the means of arming themselves or providing themselves with mounts.”（Chronique de la Pucelle, Panthéon littéraire, p.442）.
1700096933
1700096934
In 1467 Charles the Bold selected, from the vassals who had been levied, those who had full equipment; they numbered 400 of the total group of 1，400. But it happened that the nobles took their pay and rode back home（according to Guillaume, p.89）.
1700096935
1700096936
19.Lachauvelays, p.170，estimates that the two Burgundies provided Charles the Bold with thirty-two companies of soudoyers à gages ménagers.
1700096937
1700096938
The thirty-two companies numbered 899 men-at-arms with three horses each（that is，899 pages and 899 valets），541 gens de trait à cheval（mounted marksmen），178 coutilliers à cheval（light horsemen），and 177 demi-lances.（A demi-lance is an individual knight who receives the samepay as two marksmen.）
1700096939
1700096940
The totals were therefore as follows:
1700096941
1700096942
1700096943
1700096944
1700096945
20.A regulation for Hainaut appeared in 1470 and, according to Guillaume, p.113，stated the following: A fief-holder with more than 360 pounds of annual income had to provide one man-at-arms with a coutillier, a page, and six dismounted archers. A fief-holder with 240 pounds of income was to provide one man-at-arms. A fief-holder with 120 pounds was to provide three men on foot（dismounted archers, crossbowmen, or spearmen）. The smaller and larger groups were combined in accordance with the corresponding mission. Fiefs under 64 sous had no obligation. Anyone who could not serve personally was to provide an appropriate substitute, and if he could not do so, the commanders took over that responsibility for him. Every four months the items of equipment were to be inspected.
1700096946
1700096947
A similar regulation appeared in 1475 for Flanders.
1700096948
1700096949
Let us note that a certain progression upward occurred, that the smallest fief-holders were completely free, and that possessions of quite a significant extent called for providing one man on foot or even on horseback, and that the men in service were paid. Let us compare with this situation the concept that in the Carolingian Empire ownership of a few hides was burdened with providing one man at his own expense.
1700096950
1700096951
According to Lachauvelays, p. 258，the largest number of fiefs had an income of less than 50 francs, often only 10 francs.
1700096952
1700096953
The wording of the levy that Charles’governor for Burgundy issued on 3 May 1471 is very remarkable: “All types of men, both nobles and others, regardless of their class or profession, who are accustomed to bearing and using arms, whether or not they have fiefs and whether or not they have provided somebody for the present army”（quoted in Lachauvelays, p.187）. We might use this regulation as a paraphrase of the “cuncta generalitas populi”（“the whole mass of the people”）in the capitulary of Charlemagne（p.42，above）or the “universi”（“all”）in the levy of 817（p.36，above）.
1700096954
1700096955
21.This is specified in this way by the regulation of 31 July 1471. Olivier de la Marche, who commanded a company himself, states in his memoirs that the lance was composed of two archers, two men armed with the culverin, and two spearmen（according to Guillaume, p.121）.
1700096956
1700096957
7 坦嫩贝格会战、蒙莱里会战及同时期的其他若干战斗
1700096958
1700096959
1.While the special study by Karl Heveker，“The Battle of Tannenberg”（“Die Schlacht bei Tannenberg”），Berlin dissertation，1906，published by Georg Nauck, has greatly advanced the understanding of the battle and has eliminated many false ideas, it still leaves important points in the dark. If I attempt to arrive at a clear picture from it, I must add that a number of points in my account are based only on supposition. Among more recent works, I cite an article by S. Kujot in Die altpreussische Monatsschrift, Vol.48，Issue No.1，and Krollmann, Oberländische Geschichtsblätter, Issue No.13，1911. Also worthy of note is the study “The Knights’Grave of Tannenberg”（“Das Rittergrab von Tannenberg”），by E.Schnippel in the Oberländische Geschichtsblätter, Issue No.11，1909.