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1.除此之外还有增强子。增强子可能位于距离基因几千碱基对远的地方，参与触发DNA的转录。编码区末端的3’UTR在涉及与micro-RNAs的相互作用的基因表达调控中也扮演着重要的角色。
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2.参见图“Chromosome 3 pairs”，Genetic Science Learning Center,Univ. of Utah, http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/twins/。
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3.X. Wang, D. C. Miller, R. Harman, D. F. Antczak, and A. G. Clark.,“Paternally expressed genes predominate in the placenta,”Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences110, No. 26 (2013): 10705–10710.
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4.H. A. Lawson, J. M. Cheverud, and J. B. Wolf, “Genomic imprinting and parent-of-origin effects on complex traits,”Nature Reviews Genetics14,No. 9 (2013): 609–617。
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5.E. B. Keverne,“Genomic imprinting in the brain,”Current Opinion inNeurobiology7, No. 4 (1997): 463–468.
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6.F. Ankel-Simons and J. M. Cummins,“Misconceptions about mitochondria and mammalian fertilization: Implications for theories on human evolution,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences93, No. 24 (1996)
:13859–13863.
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7.J. Molinier, G. Ries, C. Zipfel, and B. Hohn, “Transgeneration memory of stress in plants,”Nature442, No. 7106 (2006): 1046–1049。
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8.M. E. Pembrey, L. O. Bygren, G. Kaati, S. Edvinsson, K. Northstone, M.Sjöström, and J. Golding,“Sex-specific, male-line transgenerational responses in humans,”European Journal of Human Genetics14, no. 2 (2006): 159–166;G. Kaati, L. O. Bygren, M. Pembrey, and M. Sjöström, “Transgenerational response to nutrition, early life circumstances and longevity,”European Journalof Human Genetics15, No. 7 (2007): 784–790; M. E. Pembrey, “Male-line transgenerational responses in humans,”Human Fertility13, No. 4 (2010)
:268–271.
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9.F. Torche, and K. Kleinhaus,“Prenatal stress, gestational age and second- ary sex ratio: The sex-specific effects of exposure to a natural disaster in early pregnancy,”Human Reproduction27, No. 2 (2012): 558–567; R.Catalano, T. Bruckner, T. Hartig, M. Ong.,“Population stress and the Swedish sex ratio,”Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology19, No. 6 (2005): 413–420;R. Catalano, T. Bruckner, J. Gould, B. Eskenazi, and E. Anderson, “Sex ratios in California following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001,”HumanReproduction20, No. 5 (2005): 1221–1227; M. Fukuda, K. Fukuda, T. Shimizu,以及H. Møller, “Decline in sex ratio at birth after Kobe earthquake,”HumanReproduction13, No. 8 (1998): 2321–2322。
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附录5 环境因素对种族间不平等的影响
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1.当然，黑人群体不再是美国人口最多的少数群体，取而代之的是拉丁裔群体。2014年拉丁裔占到了美国人口的17%（https://www.census.gov/newsroom/ facts-for-features/2015/cb15-ff18.html）。但是由于拉丁裔是一个众多且互相差异巨大的群体的统称，他们的经济状况也各不相同，所以黑人与白人仍然形成了最鲜明的对照。
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2.黑人非婚生子女的概率是白人的2倍。2010年白人和黑人妇女的非婚生育率分别为32.9%和65.3%［Y. Kim and R. K. Raley, “Raceethnic differences in the non- marital fertility rates in 2006– 2010,”PopulationResearch and Policy Review34, No. 1（2015）: 141– 159］。在西班牙裔中，这一比率达到80.6%［J. A. Martin, B. E. Hamilton, S. J. Ventura, M.J.K.Osterman, E. C. Wilson, and T. J. Matthews, “Births: Final data for2010,” in National Vital Statistics Reports 61, no. 1（2012）, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_01.pdf］。这一差异部分来源于监禁率的巨大差异，而监禁会将男性从交配人群中去除。白人的截面监禁率是446人/百万人（任意时刻被司法系统收监的人群）。对黑人来说，则是惊人的2805人/百万人。也就是说，在任何时候，被联邦和政府监禁的黑人数目是白人的6倍。这一比率不包括假释者。司法统计局只计算了在监人员，假释者则只能通过调查分析，而且数据并不稳定［A. E. Carson,Prisoners in 2013（Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice,2014）］。另外，白人的寿命更长。非西班牙裔黑人和白人的寿命期望分别是74.2岁和78.7岁［E. Arias, “United States Life Tables, 2009,”NationalVital Statistics Reports62, no. 7（2014）, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr62/nvsr62_07.pdf］。种族间寿命的差距则在过去的15年内不断缩小，G. Firebaugh, F. Acciai, A. J. Noah, C. Prather, and C. Nau, “Why the racial gapin life expectancy is declining in the United States,”Demographic Research31(2014): 975– 1006。
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没有任何一种统计方法考虑了性别差异。比如，黑人女性的收入只有白人女性的84%，同时黑人男性的收入则只有白人男性的75%。2013年，黑人和白人女性的平均周薪分别是664美元和722美元。而对黑人男性和白人男性，这一数字是664美元和882美元（Bureau of Labor Statistics,“Highlights of women’s earnings in 2013,”BLS Reports, no. 1051, December 2014, http://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/ womens-earnings/archive/highlights-ofwomens-earnings-in-2013.pdf）。然而，这些数字只是在为美国社会的种族不平等添砖加瓦，即使是在民权时代之后的半个世纪。正是这几代人差距的持续存在导致了对其本质原因的激烈争论。在奴隶时代，随后的吉姆克劳时代［译者注：吉姆克劳法是1876—1965年间美国南部各州以及边境各州对有色人种（主要针对非洲裔美国人，但同时也包含其他族群）实行种族隔离制度的法律］，甚至是民权时代的早期，可以说种族间的差距是几个世纪以来的压迫的后遗症，但是它为什么现在还存在呢？
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3.D. Conley,Being Black, Living in the Red: Race, Wealth and Social Policy in America(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999)。
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4.S. Fordham and John U. Ogbu, “Black students’ school success
:Coping with the “burden of ‘acting white,’”Urban Review18, No. 3 (1986)
:176¨C206.
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5.M. S. Granovetter, “The strength of weak ties,”American Journal ofSociology78, No. 6(1973): 1360¨C1380.
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6.M. Bertrand and S. Mullainathan, “Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination,”American Economic Review94, No. 4 (2004): 991–1013.
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7.虽然一直被认为是黄金标准，但是对审计研究的批评也不是没有。例如，詹姆斯·赫克曼（James Heckman）指出，第一，如果没有正确配对测试者，审计研究或许无法消除预期信号之外的信号［J.Heckman,“Detecting discrimination,”Journal of Economic Perspectives12,No. 2（1998）: 101– 116］。第二，即便是在非面对面的通信性实验（发邮件或者写信）中，受试者也可能对不同的变量做出了相应的对策。最近的研究表明房产市场是歧视最明显的。D. Neumark and J. Rich, “Dofield experiments on labor and housing markets overstate discrimination? Reexamination of the evidence”(working paper w22278, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, 2016)。
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8.D. N. Figlio, “Names, expectations and the black-white test score gap”(working paper 11195, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge,MA, 2005).
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9.A. R. McConnell and J. M. Leibold, “Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes,”Journal of Experimental Social Psychology37, No. 5 (2001): 435–442.
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10.R. Rosenthal and L. Jacobson, “Pygmalion in the classroom,”UrbanReview3, No. 1 (1968)
:16–20.
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11.C. M. Steele and J. Aronson, “Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans,”Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology69, No. 5 (1995): 797¨C811.
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12.H. Schuman,Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
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13.J. Citrin, D. P. Green, and D. O. Sears, “White reactions to black candidates: When does race matter?”Public Opinion Quarterly54, No. 1 (1990)
:74–96.
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14.J. Hopkins,“ No more wilder effect, never a Whitman effect: When and why polls mislead about black and female candidates,” Journal of Politics 71, No. 3 (2009): 769–781.
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