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20. D. A. Kessler, The End of Overeating: Taking Control of the Insatiable American Appetite (New York: Rodale, 2009).
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21. J. Nolte, The Human Brain: An Introduction to Its Functional Anatomy, 5th ed. (St. Louis: Mosby, 2002); D. U. Silverthorn, Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach, 2nd ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001); H. - R. Berthoud and C. Morrison, “The Brain, Appetite, and Obesity,” Annual Review of Psychology 59 (2008): 55–92.
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22. Berthoud and Morrison, “The Brain, Appetite, and Obesity.”
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23. E. R. Shell, The Hungry Gene: The Science of Fat and the Future of Thin (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2002); R. S. Ahima, “Revisiting Leptin’s Role in Obesity and Weight Loss,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 118(2008): 2380–2383.
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24. S. B. Heymsfi eld et al., “Recombinant Leptin for Weight Loss in Obese and Lean Adults,” Journal of the American Medical Association 282(1999): 1568–1575.
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25. M. L. Power and J. Schulkin, The Evolution of Obesity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009).
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26. A. Wiley, Re- Imagining Milk (New York: Routledge, 2011).
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27. T. Kelesidis et al., “Narrative Review: The Role of Leptin in Human Physiology: Emerging Clinical Applications,” Annals of Internal Medicine 152 (2010): 93–100.
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28. M. Rosenbaum et al., “Low- Dose Leptin Reverses Skeletal Muscle, Autonomic, and Neuroendocrine Adaptations to Maintenance of Reduced Weight,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 115 (2005): 3579–3586.
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29. M. Rosenbaum et al., “Leptin Reverses Weight Loss- Induced Changes in Regional Neural Activity Responses to Visual Food Stimuli,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 118 (2008): 2583–2591. The analysis of the data from this fMRI study was a bit complicated in that there were scans done before and after weight loss and comparing subjects who had received leptin after weight loss with those who had received a placebo. For both the before and after conditions, multiple brain areas are activated upon viewing the food items, refl ecting the fact that food can be a complex stimulus simultaneously activating several cognitive networks.
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30. Ibid., 2587.
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31. A. J. Ho et al., “Obesity Is Linked with Lower Brain Volume in 700 AD and MCI Patients,” Neurobiology of Aging 31 (2010): 1326–1339.
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32. J. S. Allen, J. Bruss, and H. Damasio, “Normal Neuroanatomical Variation Due to Age: The Major Lobes and a Parcellation of the Temporal Region,” Neurobiology of Aging 26 (2005): 1245–1260.
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33. J. S. Allen, J. Bruss, and H. Damasio, “The Aging Brain: The Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis and Hominid Evolution,” American Journal of Human Biology 17 (2005): 673–689.
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34. S. Debette et al., “Visceral Fat Is Associated with Lower Brain Volume in Healthy Middle- Aged Adults,” Annals of Neurology 68 (2010): 136–144; S. Gazdinski et al., “Body Mass Index and Magnetic Resonance Markers of Brain Integrity in Adults,” Annals of Neurology 63 (2008): 652–657.
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35. D. Gustafson et al., “A 24- Year Follow- Up of Body Mass Index and Cerebral Atrophy,” Neurology 63 (2004): 1876–1881.
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36. Y. Taki et al., “Relationship between Body Mass Index and Gray Matter Volume in 1,428 Healthy Individuals,” Obesity 16 (2008): 119–124.
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37. N. Pannacciulli et al., “Brain Abnormalities in Human Obesity: A Voxel- Based Morphometric Study,” NeuroImage 31 (2006): 1419–1425.
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38. C. A. Raji et al., “Brain Structure and Obesity,” Human Brain Mapping 31 (2010): 353–364.
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39. A. J. Ho, “A Commonly Carried Allele of the Obesity- Related FTO Gene Is Associated with Reduced Brain Volume in the Healthy El der ly,“Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): 8404–8409.
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40. A. J. Ho et al., “Obesity Is Linked with Lower Brain Volume.”
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41. Ibid.
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42. R. D. Terry and R. Katzman, “Life Span and the Synapses: Will There Be a Primary Senile Dementia?” Neurobiology of Aging 22 (2001): 347–348.
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43. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
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44. G. - J. Wang et al., “Evidence of Gender Differences in the Ability to Inhibit Brain Activation Elicited by Food Stimulation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (2009): 1249–1254.
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